Remark 1

From $ 3 $ century in the Mediterranean, a situation has developed in which Rome, becoming a strong power, sets the direction of ancient philosophy, replacing ancient Greek.

The cities of mainland Greece come under the influence of Rome.

In Roman philosophy, Platonism comes to the fore, which dissolves in Epicureanism, skepticism and Stoicism.

Thanks to the expansionary policy of the Roman state, a vast framework of Roman thinking is being formed. Political and legal concepts and teachings that have ancient Greek roots in their beginning are developing especially successfully.

A common feature of ancient Roman philosophy is the highlighting of ethics, which is associated with a correct and happy lifestyle.

Each school of this period develops its own idea of \u200b\u200bperfection and its own image of a sage. This image of the sage remains the same. The philosopher begins to associate with the "strange" figure. Genuine philosophizing in everyday life takes on a specific character.

History of Stoicism

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There are three stages:

• Ancient standing ($ III-II $ centuries BC). Founder Zeno of Kitiysky.
• Middle standing ($ II-I $ centuries BC) Representatives: Panetius of Rhodes ($ 180-110), Posidonius ($ 135-51). It was they who brought Stoicism to Rome.
• Late standing or Roman stoicism. This is a purely ethical phenomenon. In the $ I-II $ centuries. AD it existed simultaneously with the Judeo-Christian tradition, which influenced the formation of Christian doctrine.

Stoicism

The most prominent figures of Stoicism were Seneca Lucius Anneas, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius ... From Seneca, there are works in Latin. Epictetus, who was a Greek slave, did not leave behind any written sources. Marcus Aurelius is the Roman emperor who left his works in Greek.

Stoicism can be called the "religion" of the Roman aristocracy. How can happiness be achieved, and how does it relate to virtue? These are the questions confronting the representatives of stoicism.

Happiness is living in harmony with nature. Happiness is an individual phenomenon.

Human nature is perfect, therefore it contributes to the nature of the whole. You can improve only the nature of a specific person, while improving nature as a whole. The discernment of the truth is always associated with the transformation of oneself. It is impossible to see the truth without transforming your being.

The Stoics shared Aristotle's ideas about man as a polis and logistic being. The Logos is the unchanging foundation of everything. He also determines the perfection of the world and man. A person must live according to the logos. Man is a cosmopolitan. He must live in accordance with the logos of nature. Cosmopolitanism is a concept that originates in Stoicism. Polis is a copy of the universal state.

Judgments about the macrocosm and the microcosm originate from the Stoics. The microcosm repeats the macrocosm.

Quintus Annius argued that the Roman is the one who values \u200b\u200bfreedom, nobility, piety above all else.

In Roman culture, human destiny is thought of as fatalism. A person actualizes it when he reaches his goal, when he becomes himself. This is piety and the highest manifestation of freedom. One must serve duty and fulfill his fatum without succumbing to emotions. All love lies outside the concept of honor and duty. The European Renaissance draws on the ideas of humanism from Antiquity. The Roman concept of humanism is associated with rethinking the role of man, his cultivation.

The Romans discover the world as history for the first time.

The most important thing is fear of death. It cannot be viewed without comprehending nature. Accordingly, enjoyment is impossible without comprehension of nature. The Stoics committed suicide because philosophy is dying. While striving for the eternal, we strive for death.

Epicureanism

Founder - Epicurus.

The Epicurus school is the only example of atomism in Roman philosophy. One of the representatives of Epicureanism was Titus Lucretius Carus. He correlates his teachings with the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus.

This philosophical trend existed for quite a long time in Roman culture. This was a very influential trend until 313, before the arrival of Christianity. Further, it was brutally supplanted by representatives of Christianity.

Skepticism

Another no less important trend in ancient Roman philosophy. Representative - Enesidem of Knossos ... His teaching was greatly influenced by the ancient Greek skepticism of Pyrrho. The main motive for Enesidem's skepticism was the opposition to the dogmatism of early philosophical concepts.

He paid attention to the inconsistency of the theories of other philosophers. His skeptical views came to the conclusion that it is impossible to make any judgments about reality that are based on sensations. This is a doubt about the correctness of the most influential theories of all ancient philosophy. In the period of younger skepticism, the figure of Sextus Empiricus is singled out, who followed the same path of doubt both in Greek philosophy and in mathematics, rhetoric, and grammar.

Remark 2

Major attempts at skepticism - to prove that this direction is the original path of philosophy, not mixed with other philosophical trends.

Eclecticism acquires wide significance in ancient Roman philosophy. This trend includes many significant personalities of political and Roman culture, such as Cicero. Representatives of this trend possessed a huge amount of knowledge. These are real encyclopedists of their era. Eclecticism was based on a collection, an unification of different philosophical schools, which were united by a conceptual approach. Eclecticism was formed on the basis of academic philosophy, which covered knowledge from the teachings of nature to the teachings of society.

In the late crisis of the Roman state, criticism of the rational knowledge of the world appears, which led to mysticism, with an increase in Christianization. The concept of Roman Neoplatonism begins to grow. This is the last solid movement in the final stage of the existence of the Roman Empire. This is a reflection on decaying social relations.

Philosophy is characterized by eclecticism, like this entire era. This culture was formed in conflict with the Greek civilization and at the same time felt a unity with it. Roman philosophy was not very interested in how nature works - it mainly talked about life, overcoming adversity and dangers, as well as about how to combine religion, physics, logic and ethics.

Teaching about virtues

One of the most prominent representatives of the Stoic school was Seneca. He was the teacher of Nero - known for his bad reputation as the emperor of ancient Rome. set forth in such works as "Letters to Lucillus", "Questions of Nature". But Roman Stoicism was different from the classical Greek trend. So, Zeno and Chrysippus considered logic to be the skeleton of philosophy, and physics as the soul. Ethics, they believed, were her muscles. Seneca was the new stoic. He called ethics the soul of thought and all virtue. And he lived in accordance with his principles. For the fact that he did not approve of the repression of his pupil against Christians and the opposition, the emperor ordered Seneca to commit suicide, which he did with dignity.

School of humility and moderation

The philosophy of ancient Greece and Rome took Stoicism very positively and developed this direction until the very end of the era of antiquity. Another famous thinker of this school is Epictetus, the first philosopher of the ancient world, who was a slave by birth. This left an imprint on his views. Epictetus openly called on slaves to be considered the same people as everyone else, which was inaccessible to Greek philosophy. For him, stoicism was a style of life, a science that allowed him to maintain composure, not strive for pleasure and not be afraid of death. He stated that one should want not the best, but what is already there. Then you will not be disappointed in life. Epictetus called his philosophical credo apathy, the science of dying. This he called obedience to the Logos (God). Resignation to fate is a manifestation of the highest spiritual freedom. The emperor was a follower of Epictetus

Skeptics

Historians who study the development of human thought consider such a phenomenon as ancient philosophy to be a single whole. were similar to each other in a number of concepts. This is especially typical for the period of late antiquity. For example, both Greek and Roman thought knew such a phenomenon as skepticism. This direction always arises during the decline of large civilizations. In the philosophy of ancient Rome, its representatives were Enesidemus of Knossos (student of Pyrrho), Agrippa, Sextus Empiricus. All of them were similar to each other in that they opposed any kind of dogmatism. Their main slogan was the assertion that all disciplines contradict each other and deny themselves, only skepticism accepts everything and at the same time calls into question.

"On the nature of things"

Epicureanism was another popular school of ancient Rome. This philosophy became known primarily thanks to Titus Lucretius Carus, who lived in a rather turbulent time. He was an interpreter of Epicurus and in the poem "On the Nature of Things" in verse he expounded his philosophical system. First of all, he explained the doctrine of atoms. They are devoid of any properties, but their combination creates the qualities of things. The number of atoms in nature is always the same. Thanks to them, the transformation of matter takes place. Nothing arises out of nothing. The worlds are multiple, they arise and perish according to the law of natural necessity, and atoms are eternal. The universe is infinite, while time exists only in objects and processes, and not by itself.

Epicureanism

Lucretius was one of the best thinkers and poets of ancient Rome. His philosophy aroused both delight and indignation among his contemporaries. He constantly argued with representatives of other directions, especially with skeptics. Lucretius believed that they should not believe science to be non-existent, because otherwise we would constantly think that a new sun rises every day. Meanwhile, we know perfectly well that it is one and the same star. Lucretius also criticized Plato's idea of \u200b\u200bthe transmigration of souls. He said that since the individual dies anyway, what difference does it make where his spirit goes. Both the material and the psychic in a person are born, grow old and die. Lucretius also thought about the origin of civilization. He wrote that people at first lived in a state of savagery until they knew fire. And society arose as a result of an agreement between individuals. Lucretius preached a kind of Epicurean atheism and at the same time criticized Roman customs as too perverted.

Rhetoric

The most prominent representative of the eclecticism of Ancient Rome, the philosophy of which is the subject of this article, was Mark Tullius Cicero. He considered rhetoric to be the basis of all thinking. This politician and orator tried to combine the Roman pursuit of virtue and the Greek art of philosophizing. It was Cicero who introduced the concept of "humanitas", which we now widely use in political and public discourse. In the field of science, this thinker can be called an encyclopedist. As for morality and ethics, in this area he believed that each discipline goes to virtue in its own way. Therefore, every educated person should know any ways of knowing and accept them. And all sorts of everyday hardships are overcome by willpower.

Philosophical and religious schools

During this period, traditional ancient philosophy continued to develop. Ancient Rome accepted the teachings of Plato and his followers well. Especially at this time, philosophical and religious schools were fashionable, which united the West and the East. The main questions raised by these teachings are the relationship and opposition of spirit and matter.

One of the most popular trends was Neopythagoreanism. It promoted the idea of \u200b\u200bone God and a world full of contradictions. The Neopythagoreans believed in the magic of numbers. A very famous figure of this school was Apollonius of Tyana, whom Apuleius ridiculed in his Metamorphoses. Among the Roman intellectuals dominated by the doctrine that tried to combine Judaism with Platonism. He believed that Jehovah gave birth to the Logos, who created the world. It was not without reason that Engels once called Philo "the uncle of Christianity."

The most fashionable destinations

The main schools of philosophy of Ancient Rome include Neoplatonism. The thinkers of this trend created the doctrine of a whole system of mediators - emanations - between God and the world. The most famous Neoplatonists were Ammonius Saccas, Plotinus, Iamblichus, Proclus. They professed polytheism. Philosophically, the Neoplatonists explored the process of creation as an allocation of a new and eternal return. They considered God to be the cause, origin, essence and purpose of all things. The Creator is poured into the world, therefore a person in a kind of frenzy can ascend to Him. They called this state ecstasy. Close to Iamblichus were the eternal opponents of the Neoplatonists - the Gnostics. They believed that evil has an independent beginning, and all emanations are a consequence of the fact that creation began against the will of God.

The philosophy of Ancient Rome has been briefly described above. We see that the thought of this era was strongly influenced by its predecessors. They were Greek natural philosophers, Stoics, Platonists, Pythagoreans. Of course, the Romans changed or developed the meaning of the previous ideas in some way. But it was their popularization that was ultimately beneficial for ancient philosophy as a whole. After all, it was thanks to the Roman philosophers that medieval Europe met the Greeks and began to study them in the future.

From the beginning of the III century BC. e. in the Mediterranean region, the influence of Rome is significantly increasing, which, from an urban republic, is becoming a strong power. In the II century. BC e. he already owns a large part of the ancient world. The cities of mainland Greece also fall under his economic and political influence. Thus, the penetration of Greek culture begins in Rome, of which philosophy was an integral part. Roman culture and education developed in completely different conditions than those that were several centuries earlier in Greece. The Roman campaigns, directed in all directions of the then known world (on the one hand, in the area of \u200b\u200bmature civilizations of the ancient world, and on the other, on the territory of "barbarian" tribes), form a broad framework for the formation of Roman thinking. The natural and technical sciences developed successfully, political and legal sciences reached an unprecedented scale. Therefore, it is that Roman philosophy was also formed under the decisive influence of Greek, in particular Hellenistic, philosophical thinking. A definite impetus for the expansion of Greek philosophy in Rome was the visit of its Athenian ambassadors, among whom were the most prominent representatives of the Greek philosophical schools that existed at that time (mid-2nd century BC).

From about this time, three philosophical trends developed in Rome, which were already formed in Hellenistic Greece - Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism.

Stoicism. Stoicism was most widespread both in republican and later in imperial Rome. Sometimes it is considered the only philosophical movement that took on a new meaning in the Roman period. Its beginnings can be seen already in the influence of Diogenes from Seleucia and An-typatra from Tarsus (who arrived in Rome with the aforementioned Athenian embassy). A notable role in the development of Stoicism in Rome was also played by representatives of the middle stance - Panethius of Rhodes and Posidonius, who worked in Rome for a relatively long period. Their merit is that they contributed to the widespread spread of Stoicism in the middle and upper classes of Roman society. Among the students of Panethius were such outstanding personalities of ancient Rome as Scipio the Younger and Cicero. Panethius, in the basic tenets of his doctrine, largely adhered to the old stoicism. So, he meets the concept of logos, similar to the concept, for example, of Chrysippus, who adhered to similar ontological views. In the field of ethics, he brought the ideal of the Stoic sage somewhat closer to practical life.

The further development of Roman Stoicism was greatly influenced by Posidonius. In the field of ontology, he develops the main philosophical problems of the teachings of Aristotle, as well as issues bordering on natural science and cosmology. He combines the original philosophical and ethical views of Greek Stoicism with elements of the teachings of Plato, and in some cases with Pythagorean mysticism. (This reflects a certain eclecticism that was typical of Roman philosophy of that period.)

The most prominent representatives of Roman Stoicism (new sta) were Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius.

Seneca (c. 4 BC-65 AD) came from the class of "horsemen" 28, received a comprehensive natural science, legal and philosophical education, for a relatively long period he successfully practiced law. Later he becomes the educator of the future emperor Nero, after whose accession to the throne he receives the highest social position and honors. In the second year of Nero's rule, he dedicates to him a treatise "On Mercy", in which he urges Nero as a ruler to maintain moderation and adhere to the republican spirit.

As prestige and wealth grows, Seneca comes into conflict with his surroundings. After a fire in 64 AD. e. hatred of Seneca in Rome is growing. He leaves town and lives on his nearby estate. Charged with plotting a conspiracy, he was forced to commit suicide.

Seneca's legacy is vast. His most outstanding works include Letters to Lucilius, Discourse on Providence, On the Resilience of a Philosopher, On Anger, On a Happy Life, On Free Time, On Virtue, etc. For with the exception of Questions of Nature, all of his works are devoted to ethical issues. If the old standing believed physics to be the soul, then the philosophy of the new standing considers it to be a completely subordinate field.

In views on nature (as well as in the rest of his work), Seneca, however, in principle adheres to the teachings of the old stop. This is manifested, for example, in the materialistically oriented dualism of matter and form. Mind is considered to be an active principle that imparts form to matter. In this case, the primacy of matter is unambiguously recognized. He also understands the soul (pneuma) in the spirit of the old stoicism, as a very subtle matter, a mixture of the elements of fire and air.

In epistemology, Seneca, like other representatives of Stoicism, is a supporter of ancient sensationalism. He emphasizes that the mind has its origin in feelings. In deciding the question of the activity of the soul, however, he accepts some elements of Platonic philosophy, which is manifested primarily in the recognition of the immortality of the soul and the characterization of corporeality as the "fetters" of the soul.

Seneca proceeds from the fact that everything in the world and in the universe is subject to the power of strict necessity. This follows from his concept of God as an immanent, ruling force that rules over reason (logos). Seneca characterizes it as "the highest good and the highest wisdom", which is realized in the harmony of the world and its purposeful structure.

Unlike the old stand Seneca (as well as all Roman stoicism) almost does not deal with logical problems. The center and focus of his system is ethics. The principle of harmony with nature (to live happily means living in accordance with nature) and the principle of human subordination to fate are distinguished as the main ones. The question of how to live life is the subject of his treatises "On the brevity of life" and "On a happy life." They project both the personal experience of Seneca and the social relations of the then Rome. The loss of civil liberties and the decline of republican virtues in the era of imperial rule lead him to significant doubts about the future. “Life is divided into three periods: past, present and future. Of these, the one in which we live is short; the one in which we will live is doubtful, and only the one that We have lived is definite. Only it is stable, fate does not influence it, but no one can return it either ”29. Seneca rejects the desire for the accumulation of property, for secular honors and positions: “The higher one ascended, the closer he is to fall. Very poor and very short is the life of the person who, with great efforts, acquires what he must hold with even greater efforts ”30. However, he used his social position and became one of the richest and most influential people in Rome. When his enemies pointed to the fact that his own life is very different from the ideals that he proclaims, he answered them in his treatise On a Happy Life: “... all philosophers talk not about how they themselves live, but about how one should live.

I speak about virtue, but not about myself and I am fighting against sins, which means against my own: when I overcome them, I will live as I should ”31.

Seneca sees the meaning of life in achieving absolute peace of mind. One of the main prerequisites for this is overcoming the fear of death. He devotes a lot of space to this problem in his writings. In ethics, he continues the line of the old stand, emphasizing the concept of man as an individual striving for improvement in virtues.

A life in which a person devotes all or the overwhelming majority of his efforts to his own improvement, a life in which he avoids participation in public affairs and political activity, is, according to Seneca, the most worthy. “Better to seek shelter in a quiet dock than to be voluntarily tossed back and forth all my life. Think how many shocks of waves you have already been exposed to, how many storms swept through your private life, how many of them you unconsciously caused upon yourself in public life! I do not mean that you drown your days in sleep and pleasure. I don't call this a fulfilling life. Strive to find tasks that are more important than those you have been doing so far, and believe that it is more important to know the account of your own life than the common good that you have been thinking about until now! If you live like this, communication with wise men awaits you, wonderful art, love and the accomplishment of good; the awareness of how good it is to live and one day to die well ”32. His ethical views are saturated with individualism, which is a reaction to the turbulent political life in Rome.

Another prominent representative of Roman Stoicism, Epictetus (50-138), was originally a slave. After he was released, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy. In his views, there is much from the old stand, which influenced him, and from the work of Seneca. He himself did not leave any work. His thoughts were recorded by his disciple Arrian of Nicomedia in the treatises "The Reasoning of Epictetus" and "The Manual of Epictetus" Epictetus defended the point of view according to which philosophy, in fact, is not only knowledge, but also application in practical life, He was not an original thinker, his merit mainly consists in the popularization of Stoic philosophy.

In his ontological concepts and views in the field of the theory of knowledge, he proceeded from Greek Stoicism. The works of Chrysippus had an exceptional influence on him. The core of Epictetus' philosophy is ethics, based on a stoic understanding of virtue and life in accordance with the general nature of the world.

The study of nature (physics) is important and useful not because on its basis it is possible to change nature (the world around), but because, in accordance with nature, a person can order his life. A person should not desire what he cannot master: “If you want your children, your wife and your friends to live permanently, then you are either crazy, or you want things that are not in your power to be in your power and so that what is alien is yours ”33. And since it is not within man's power to change the objective world, society is not within the power of man, one should not strive for this.

Epictetus criticizes and condemns the then public order. He emphasizes thoughts about the equality of people, condemns slavery. This is how his views differ from the Stoic doctrine. The central motive of his philosophy - resignation to a given reality - leads, however, to passivity. "Do not want everything to happen as you want, but wish that everything happens as it happens, and you will be happy in life."

Epictetus considers reason to be the real essence of man. Thanks to him, man participates in the general order of the world. Therefore, one should not worry about well-being, comforts and, in general, bodily pleasures, but only about one's soul.

Just as reason rules over man, so the world mind rules - logos (God). He is the source and determining factor of the development of the world. Things, as a controlled god, should obey him. Freedom and independence, to which he attached great importance, Epictetus limits only spiritual freedom, freedom of humility with reality.

Epictetus' ethics is essentially rationalistic. And although it is expressively marked by subjectivism, it still protects (in contrast to the irrationalist currents that were forming at that time) the power of the human mind.

In essence, the entire philosophy of Epictetus is an expression of the passive protest of the lower social classes against the existing social order. This protest, however, finds no real way out. Therefore, it translates into a call to come to terms with the existing state of affairs.

Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180) also belongs to the Roman Stoics, during whose reign the crisis phenomena became even more intense. The upper social classes refuse to change anything in order to preserve the existing social order. In Stoic ethics, they see a certain means of moral revival of society. The emperor in his reflections "To himself" proclaims that "the only thing that is in the power of man are his thoughts." “Look into your gut! There, inside, there is a source of good, which is able to beat without running out, if you constantly dig up to it. " He understands the world as eternally flowing and changeable. The main goal of human aspirations should be the achievement of virtue, that is, submission to "reasonable laws of nature in accordance with human nature." Marcus Aurelius recommends: "A calm thought with everything that comes from the outside, and justice with everything" that is realized at your own discretion, that is, your desire and action, let them consist in actions generally useful, for this is the essence in accordance with your nature. "

Marcus Aurelius is the last representative of ancient stoicism, and in fact, this is where stoicism ends. Certain traces of mysticism appear in his work, which is closely associated with the decline of Roman society. The Stoic doctrine, in particular the emphasis on the need to "subordinate oneself" (to the world mind - logos - to God), largely influenced the formation of early Christianity.

Epicureanism. The only materialistic (for its time, clearly materialistic) philosophy in ancient Rome was Epicureanism, which spread significantly in the last years of the Roman Republic and at the beginning of the imperial rule. Its most prominent representative was Titus Lucretius Kar (c. 95-55 BC), who wrote the philosophical poem "On Nature", which is also a valuable work of fiction in the literature of that time.

Lucretius fully identifies his views with the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus; he considered the latter the best Greek philosopher. In his work, he skillfully explains, proves and promotes the views of the early representatives of the atomistic doctrine, consistently defends the basic principles of atomism from both earlier and contemporary opponents, while giving at the same time the most integral and logically ordered interpretation of atomistic philosophy. At the same time, in many cases he develops and deepens the thoughts of Democritus and Epicurus. Lucretius considers atoms and emptiness to be the only existence.

Matter, first of all, is the primary bodies of things, and secondly, everything that is the totality of the named elements. Not a single force, however, can destroy atoms, they always win with their impenetrability. The first is deeply different, those two things have a double character, as it was said above, matter and space, everything happens in it; they are necessary in themselves and are pure. Where emptiness, so-called space, stretches, there is no mother; and tai, where matter has spread, there is no emptiness and space in any way. The first bodies are complete without emptiness. Secondly, in the things that have arisen, emptiness exists, and next to it is whole matter.

In this form, Lucretius expounds the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus about atoms and emptiness, emphasizing at the same time the inability to create matter as such.

If, however, the first bodies, solid and without cavities, as I have already said, they are undoubtedly eternal. The infinity of matter in space is also connected with the indestructibility and non-creation of matter, that is, with its infinity in time.

The universe itself cannot constrain itself; truth is the law of nature; he wants the boundaries of matter to be formed by emptiness, and matter - by the boundaries of emptiness, the merit of this alternation is the universe without end 39.

Atoms, according to Lucretius, movement is inherent. In solving the problem of movement, he stands on the principles of Epicurus. He tries to substantiate in a certain way deviations from the rectilinear motion of atoms.

What you should know about motion is this: if atoms fall vertically in space due to their own weight, here, in an indefinite place and in an indefinite way, they deviate from the path - only so much that the direction is slightly different. If this deviation did not exist, everything would fall into the depths of emptiness, down like raindrops, elements could not collide and combine, and nature would never create anything 40.

From this it follows that the Epicurean parenclitic movement for Lucretius is the source of particles. Together with the size and shape of atoms, it is the cause of the variegation and diversity of things in the world.

He considers the soul to be material, a special combination of air and heat. It flows through the whole body and is formed by the finest and smallest atoms.

What matter the spirit is of and what it consists of, my words will soon be enumerated to you. First of all, I say that the spirit is extremely subtle; the bodies that form it are extremely small. This helps to understand and you yourself will understand that: nothing happens in the world as quickly as what the thought itself imagines and forms. From this it is evident that the spirit has a greater speed than anything that is accessible to the eye; but what is also mobile, it is true that it consists of completely round and smallest bodies 41.

In a similar way, he defends atomistic views in the field of the theory of knowledge, which he also developed in many directions.

In Lucretius' understanding of atomistic theory, one can already find the outline of evolutionism. He held the view that everything organic arose from inorganic and that complex organic species developed from protozoa.

Lucretius tries to explain in a natural way the emergence of society. He says that originally people lived in a "semi-wild state", without knowing fire and dwelling. Only the development of material culture leads to the fact that the human herd is gradually turning into a society. Naturally, he could not come to a materialistic understanding of the causes of the emergence and development of human society. His desire for a "natural" explanation was limited by both social and epistemological parameters. However, despite this, his views on society were, in particular, in comparison with the then idealistic approach, significant progress. Just like Epicurus, he believed that society, social organization (law, laws) arise as a product of mutual agreement between people (theory of contract): Neighbors then began to unite in friendship, No longer wanting to mend lawlessness and enmity, and children and women the floor was taken under guard, showing with gestures and awkward sounds that everyone should have sympathy for the weak. Although agreement could not be universally recognized, the best and most part of the contract was faithful to fulfill 42.

The materialism of Lucretius has its own atheistic consequences. Lucretius not only excludes gods from a world in which everything has natural causes, but also opposes all belief in gods. He criticizes the idea of \u200b\u200blife after death and all other religious myths. Shows that belief in gods arises in a completely natural way, as a product of fear and ignorance of natural causes. In particular, he points to the epistemological origins of the emergence of religious ideas (the disclosure of the social roots of religion was, of course, impossible in his time).

In the field of ethics, Lucretius consistently defends the Epicurean principles of a calm and happy life. Knowledge is the means of achieving happiness. For a person to live happily, he must free himself from fear, in particular from the fear of the gods. He defended these views both from stoic and skeptical criticism, and from their vulgarization in the understanding of some Epicurean supporters from the highest circles of society.

The influence and dissemination of the consistently materialistic and logically integral philosophical system of Lucretius was undoubtedly facilitated by the artistic form of presentation. The poem "On Nature" belongs not only to the heights of Roman philosophical thinking, but also to highly artistic works of its period.

Epicureanism in Roman society was retained for a relatively long time. Even in the era of Aurelian, the Epicurean school was among the most influential philosophical trends. However, when in 313 AD. e. Christianity becomes the official state religion, a stubborn and ruthless struggle begins against Epicureanism, and in particular against the ideas of Lucretius Cara, which ultimately led to the gradual decline of this philosophy.

Roman Epicureanism, in particular the work of Lucretius Cara, marked the pinnacle of materialistic tendencies in Roman philosophy. He became an intermediary link between the materialism of the ancient Greek Stoics and the materialistic trends of modern philosophy.

Skepticism. Another significant philosophical direction of ancient Rome was skepticism. Its main representative Enesidemus of Knossos (c. I century BC) is close in his views to the philosophy of Pyrrho. The influence that Greek skepticism had on the formation of Enesidem's thoughts is evidenced by the fact that his main work he devoted to the interpretation of the teachings of Pyrrho ("Eight books of Pyrrhic discourses").

Enesidem saw skepticism as a way to overcome the dogmatism of all existing philosophical trends. He paid much attention to the analysis of contradictions in the teachings of other philosophers. The conclusion from his skeptical views is that it is impossible to make any judgments about reality based on immediate sensations. To substantiate this conclusion, he is served by the formulations of the so-called tropes, which have already been mentioned.

The next five tropes, which were added by the successor of Enesidemus Agrippa, further increased doubts about the correctness of the ideas of other philosophical trends.

The most prominent representative of the so-called minor skepticism was Sextus Empiricus. His teaching also comes from Greek skepticism. This is evidenced by the title of one of his works - "Foundations of Pyrrhonism". In other works - "Against the dogmatists", "Against mathematicians" - he sets out the methodology of skeptical doubt, based on a critical assessment of the basic concepts of the then knowledge. Critical assessment is directed not only against philosophical concepts, but also against the concepts of mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, grammar, etc. His skeptical approach did not escape the question of the existence of gods, which led him to atheism.

In his works, he seeks to prove that skepticism is an original philosophy that does not allow confusion with other philosophical trends. Sextus Empiricus shows that skepticism differs from all other philosophical currents, each of which recognizes some essences and excludes others, in that it simultaneously questions and admits all essences.

Roman skepticism was a specific expression of the progressive crisis of Roman society. Searches and studies of contradictions between the statements of previous philosophical systems lead skeptics to a broad study of the history of philosophy. And although it is in this direction that skepticism creates a lot of value, on the whole it is already a philosophy that has lost the spiritual power that raised ancient thinking to its heights. In essence, skepticism contains more outright rejection than methodological criticism.

Eclecticism. Eclecticism in Rome is much more widespread and important than in Hellenistic Greece. Its supporters include a number of prominent personalities of the Roman political and cultural life both in the last years of the Roman Republic and in the first period of the empire. The most famous among them was the eminent politician and orator Mark Thulius Cicero (106-45 BC), the creator of Latin philosophical terminology.

Representatives of Roman eclecticism possessed an enormous amount of knowledge. In some cases they were true encyclopedists of their era. Their combination of various schools of thought was not accidental and unreasonable, a certain conceptual approach was strengthened precisely by deep knowledge of individual views. The gradual convergence of theory with the field of ethics expressed the general situation in philosophy.

Eclecticism, developing on the basis of academic philosophy, reaches the boundaries of encyclopedism, embracing the knowledge of both nature and society. Cicero belonged, perhaps, to the most significant branch of Roman eclecticism, which developed on the basis of Stoic philosophy.

"Stoic" eclecticism in the presentation of Cicero focuses on social issues, and in particular on ethics. His motive was the combination of those parts of different philosophical systems that bring useful knowledge.

Cicero's social views reflect his position as a representative of the upper strata of Roman society during the republic. He sees the best social order in a combination of three main state forms: monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. He considers the goal of the state to provide citizens with security and free use of property. His theoretical views were largely influenced by his real political activities.

In ethics, he largely adopts the views of the Stoics, pays considerable attention to the problems of virtue set forth by the Stoics. He considers man to be a rational being, which has something divine in itself. He calls virtue the overcoming of all life's adversities by willpower. Philosophy in this matter provides a person with invaluable services. Each of the philosophical directions comes to the achievement of virtue in its own way. Therefore, Cicero recommends to "combine" everything that is the contribution of individual schools of thought, all their achievements into one whole. By this, in fact, he defends his eclecticism.

Neoplatonism. The progressive crisis of Roman society in the last years of the republic and in the early years of the empire is naturally reflected in philosophy. Distrust in the rational development of the world, to a greater or lesser extent manifested in various philosophical directions, together with the increasing influence of Christianity, more and more strengthened the multiplying signs of mysticism. The irrational movements of this era tried in different ways to adapt to the changing role of philosophy. Neo-Pythagorean philosophy, of which Apollonius of Tiana was a typical representative, tried to strengthen itself by returning to the mysticism of numbers, bordering on charlatanism; the philosophy of Philo of Alexandria (30s BC - 50 AD) sought to combine Greek philosophy with the Jewish religion. In both concepts, mysticism manifests itself in a concentrated form.

More interesting was neo-Platonism, which developed in the 3rd-5th centuries AD. e., in the last centuries of the existence of the Roman Empire. It is the last integral philosophical movement that arose during the period of antiquity. Neoplatonism takes shape in the same social setting as Christianity. Like the rest of the irrationalist philosophical trends of late antiquity, neoplatonism to a certain extent is a manifestation of the rejection of the rationalism of previous philosophical thinking. It is a specific reflection of social despair and the progressive decomposition of social relations on which the Roman Empire was based. Its founder was Ammonius Saccas (175-242), and the most prominent representative was Plotinus (205-270) 43.

Plotinus believed that the basis of all that exists is a supersensible, supernatural, over-rational divine principle. All forms of being depend on it. Plotinus declares this principle to be absolute being and says about it that it is unknowable. “This being is and remains God, does not exist outside of him, but is precisely his very identity.” 44 This only true being is comprehensible only through penetration into the very center of pure contemplation and pure thinking, which becomes possible only with the “rejection” of thought - ecstasy (extasis). Everything else that exists in the world is derived from this one true being. Nature, according to Plotinus, was created so that the divine principle (light) penetrates through matter (darkness). Plotinus even creates a certain gradation of existence from the external (real, true) to the lowest, subordinate (inauthentic). At the top of this gradation is the divine principle, then - the divine soul, and below all - nature.

Simplifying somewhat, we can say that the divine principle of Plotinus is an absolutization and a certain deformation of the world of Plato's ideas. Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. She is for him a certain transition from the divine to the material. The soul is something alien to the material, bodily and external in relation to them. This understanding of the soul distinguishes the views of Plotinus from the views of not only the Epicureans, but also the Greek and Roman Stoics. According to Plotinus' ideas, the soul is not organically connected with the body. She is part of the common soul. The bodily is the bond of the soul, worthy only of overcoming. "Plotinus, as it were, pushes aside the bodily, sensual and is not interested in explaining its existence, but only wants to cleanse it from it, so that the universal soul and our soul do not suffer damage." The emphasis on "spiritual" (good) leads him to the complete suppression of all bodily and material (evil). This translates into the preaching of asceticism. When Plotinus speaks of the material and sensible world, he characterizes it as inauthentic being, as non-existent, “having in itself a certain image of being” 46. By its nature, inauthentic being has no form, properties or any signs. This solution to the main philosophical problematics in Plotinus marks his ethics. The principle of goodness is connected with the only truly existing - with the divine mind, or soul. On the contrary, the opposite of good - evil is associated and identified with inauthentic being, that is, with the sensible world. From these positions, Plotinus proceeds to the problems of the theory of knowledge. For him, the only true knowledge is the knowledge of true being, that is, the divine principle. The latter, of course, cannot be comprehended by sensory knowledge; it is also not cognizable in a rational way. The only way to approach the divine principle Plotinus considers (as already mentioned) ecstasy, which is achieved only by spiritual effort - mental concentration and suppression of everything bodily.

The philosophy of Plotinus specifically expresses the hopelessness and insolubility of contradictions 47, which become all-encompassing. This is the most expressive harbinger of the end of ancient culture.

Porfiry (c. 232-304) became a direct disciple of Plotinus and the continuer of his teachings. He showed great attention to the study of the works of Plotinus, published and commented on them, compiled a biography of Plotinus. Porfnrius was also engaged in the study of problems of logic, as evidenced by his "Introduction to the categories of Aristotle", which initiated the dispute about the real existence of the common.

The mystical teaching of Plotinus is continued by two other neoplatonic schools. One of them is the Syrian school, the founder and most prominent representative of which was Iamblichus (late 3rd - early 4th centuries AD). From the surviving part of his great creative heritage, one can judge that in addition to the traditional range of problems of neo-Platonic philosophy, he was also occupied with other problems, such as mathematics, astronomy, music theory, etc.

In philosophy, he develops the thoughts of Plotinus concerning the divine principle, mind and soul. Among these Plotinovsky essences, he distinguishes others, transitional.

Also noteworthy is his attempt to substantiate antique polytheism in the spirit of Plotinus' philosophy. Simultaneously with the divine principle as the only truly existing, he recognizes a number of other deities (12 heavenly gods, the number of which he then increases to 36 and further to 360; then there are 72 earthly gods and 42 gods of nature). This is, in fact, a mystical-speculative attempt to preserve the ancient image of the world in the face of the coming Christianity.

Another school of Neoplatonism - Athenian - is represented by Proclus (412-485). His work in a certain sense is the completion and systematization of neo-Platonic philosophy. He fully accepts the philosophy of Plotinus, but in addition to this he publishes and interprets Plato's dialogues, in the comments to which he expresses original observations and conclusions.

It should be noted that Proclus gives the clearest explanation and presentation of the principle of the dialectical triad 48, in which he distinguishes three main points of development: 1. The content of the created in the creator. 2. Separation of the already created from the creator. 3. Return of the created to the creator. The conceptual dialectics of ancient Neoplatonism is marked by mysticism, which reaches its peak in this concept. Both neo-Platonic schools deepen and systematically develop the basic ideas of Plotinus' mysticism. This philosophy, with its irrationalism, aversion to everything bodily, emphasis on asceticism and the doctrine of ecstasy, had a significant impact not only on early Christian philosophy, but also on medieval theological thinking. We have traced the emergence and development of ancient philosophy. For the first time practically all the main philosophical problems crystallized in it, the basic ideas about the subject of philosophy were formed and, although not explicitly, the problem was posed, which F. Engels formulated as the main question of philosophy. In ancient philosophical systems, philosophical materialism and idealism were already expressed, which in many ways influenced subsequent philosophical concepts. Lenin declared that the history of philosophy has always been an arena for the struggle between two main trends - materialism and idealism. The immediacy and, in a sense, the straightforwardness of the philosophical, thinking of the ancient Greeks and Romans make it possible to realize and more easily understand the essence of the most important problems that accompany the development of philosophy from its inception to the present day. In the philosophical thinking of antiquity, in a much clearer form than it happens later, worldview clashes and struggles are projected. The initial unity of philosophy and the expanding special scientific knowledge, their systemic allocation explain very clearly the relationship between philosophy and special (special) sciences. Philosophy permeates the entire spiritual life of ancient society, it was an integral factor in ancient culture. The wealth of ancient philosophical thinking, the posing of problems and their solution were the source from which the philosophical thought of subsequent millennia drew.

ROMAN PHILOSOPHY

From the beginning of the III century BC. e. in the Mediterranean region, the influence of Rome is significantly increasing, which, from an urban republic, is becoming a strong power. In the II century. BC e. he already owns a large part of the ancient world. The cities of mainland Greece also fall under his economic and political influence. Thus, the penetration of Greek culture begins in Rome, of which philosophy was an integral part. Roman culture and education developed in completely different conditions than those that were several centuries earlier in Greece. The Roman campaigns, directed in all directions of the then known world (on the one hand, in the area of \u200b\u200bmature civilizations of the ancient world, and on the other, on the territory of "barbarian" tribes), form a broad framework for the formation of Roman thinking. Natural and technical sciences developed successfully, political and legal sciences reached an unprecedented scale.

Roman culture is characterized by the desire to enrich itself with the best of what Rome faces, striving for world domination. Therefore, it is logical that Roman philosophy is also formed under the decisive influence of Greek, in particular Hellenistic, philosophical thinking. 2nd century BC).

From about this time, three philosophical trends developed in Rome, which were already formed in Hellenistic Greece - Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism.

Stoicism. Stoicism was most widespread both in republican and later in imperial Rome. Sometimes it is considered the only philosophical movement that took on a new meaning in the Roman period. Its beginnings can be seen already in the influence of Diogenes of Seleucia and Antipater of Tarsus (who arrived in Rome with the aforementioned Athenian embassy). A notable role in the development of Stoicism in Rome was also played by representatives of the middle stance Panethius from Rhodes and Posidonius, who worked in Rome for a relatively long period. Their merit is that they contributed to the widespread spread of Stoicism in the middle and upper classes of Roman society. Among the students of Panethius were such outstanding personalities of ancient Rome as Scipio the Younger and Cicero.

Panethius, in the main provisions of his teaching, largely adhered to the old stoicism. So, he meets the concept of logos, similar to the concept, for example, in Chrysippus, who adhered to similar ontological views. In the field of ethics, he brought the ideal of the Stoic sage somewhat closer to practical life.

The further development of Roman Stoicism was greatly influenced by Posidonius. In the field of ontology, he develops the main philosophical problems of the teachings of Aristotle, as well as issues bordering on natural science and cosmology. He combines the original philosophical and ethical views of Greek Stoicism with elements of the teachings of Plato, and in some cases with Pythagorean mysticism. (This reflects a certain eclecticism that was typical of Roman philosophy of that period.)

The most prominent representatives of Roman Stoicism (New Stoic) were Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius.

Seneca (c. 4 BC-65 AD) came from the class of "horsemen", received a comprehensive natural science, legal and philosophical education, for a relatively long period he successfully practiced law. Later he becomes the educator of the future emperor Nero, after whose accession to the throne he receives the highest social position and honors. In the second year of Nero's rule, he dedicates to him a treatise "On Mercy", in which he urges Nero as a ruler to maintain moderation and adhere to the republican spirit.

As prestige and wealth grows, Seneca comes into conflict with his surroundings. After a fire in 64 AD. e. hatred of Seneca in Rome is growing. He leaves town and lives on his nearby estate. Charged with plotting a conspiracy, he was forced to commit suicide.

Seneca's legacy is vast. His most outstanding works include Letters to Lucilius, Discourse on Providence, On the Resilience of a Philosopher, On Anger, On a Happy Life, On Free Time, On Virtue, etc. For with the exception of "Questions of Nature" ("Quastiones naturales"), all of his work is devoted to ethical issues. If the old standing believed physics to be the soul, then the philosophy of the new standing considers it to be a completely subordinate domain.

In views on nature (as well as in the rest of his work), Seneca, however, in principle adheres to the teachings of the old stop. This is manifested, for example, in the materialistically oriented dualism of matter and form. Mind is considered to be an active principle that imparts form to matter. In this case, the primacy of matter is unambiguously recognized. He also understands the soul (pneuma) in the spirit of the old stoicism, as a very subtle matter, a mixture of the elements of fire and air.

In epistemology, Seneca, like other representatives of Stoicism, is a supporter of ancient sensationalism. He emphasizes that the mind has its origin in feelings. In deciding the question of the activity of the soul, however, he accepts some elements of Platonic philosophy, which is manifested primarily in the recognition of the immortality of the soul and the characterization of corporeality as the "fetters" of the soul.

Seneca proceeds from the fact that everything in the world and in the universe is subject to the power of strict necessity. This follows from his concept of God as an immanent, ruling force that rules over reason (logos). Seneca characterizes it as "the highest good and the highest wisdom", which is realized in the harmony of the world and its purposeful structure.

Unlike the old stand Seneca (as well as all Roman stoicism) almost does not deal with logical problems. The center and focus of his system is ethics. The principle of harmony with nature (to live happily means living in accordance with nature) and the principle of human subordination to fate are distinguished as the main ones. The question of how to live life is the subject of his treatises "On the brevity of life" and "On a happy life." They project both the personal experience of Seneca and the social relations of the then Rome. The loss of civil liberties and the decline of republican virtues in the era of imperial rule lead him to significant doubts about the future. “Life is divided into three periods: past, present and future. Of these, the one in which we live is short; the one in which we will live is doubtful, and only the one that we have lived in is certain. Only he is stable, fate does not affect him, but no one can return him either. " Seneca rejects the desire for the accumulation of property, for secular honors and positions: “The higher one ascended, the closer he is to fall. Very poor and very short is the life of the person who, with great efforts, acquires what he must hold with even greater efforts. " However, he used his social position and became one of the richest and most influential people in Rome. When his enemies pointed to the fact that his own life is very different from the ideals that he proclaims, he answered them in his treatise On a Happy Life: “... all philosophers talk not about how they themselves live, but about how must live. I speak about virtue, but not about myself, and I am fighting against sins, which means against my own: when I overcome them, I will live as I should. "

Seneca sees the meaning of life in achieving absolute peace of mind. One of the main prerequisites for this is overcoming the fear of death. He devotes a lot of space to this problem in his writings. In ethics, he continues the line of the old stand, emphasizing the concept of man as an individual striving for improvement in virtues.

A life in which a person devotes all or the overwhelming majority of his efforts to his own improvement, a life in which he avoids participation in public affairs and political activity, is, according to Seneca, the most worthy. “Better to seek shelter in a quiet dock than to be voluntarily tossed back and forth all my life. Think how many shocks of waves you have already been exposed to, how many storms swept through your private life, how many of them you unconsciously caused upon yourself in public life! I do not mean that you drown your days in sleep and pleasure. I don't call this a fulfilling life. Strive to find tasks that are more important than those you have been doing so far, and believe that it is more important to know the account of your own life than the common good that you have been thinking about until now! If you live like this, communication with wise men awaits you, wonderful art, love and the accomplishment of good;

awareness of how good it is to live and one day it is good to die. " His ethical views are imbued with individualism, which is a reaction to the turbulent political life in Rome.

Another prominent representative of Roman Stoicism, Epictetus (50-138), was originally a slave. After he was released, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy. In his views, there is a lot from the old stop, which influenced him, and from the work of Seneca. He himself did not leave any work. His thoughts were recorded by his disciple Arrian of Nicomedia in the treatises "The Reasoning of Epictetus" and "The Manual of Epictetus". Epictetus defended the point of view according to which philosophy, in fact, is not only knowledge, but also application in practical life. He was not an original thinker, his merit mainly lies in the popularization of Stoic philosophy.

In his ontological ideas and in his views in the field of the theory of knowledge, he proceeded from Greek Stoicism. The works of Chrysippus had an exceptional influence on him. The core of Epictetus' philosophy is ethics based on a stoic understanding of virtue and life in accordance with the general nature of the world.

The study of nature (physics) is important and useful not because on its basis it is possible to change nature (the world around), but because, in accordance with nature, a person can order his life. A person should not desire what he cannot master: “If if you want your children, your wife and your friends to live permanently, then you are either crazy, or you want things that are not in your power to be in your power and that that is alien is yours. " And since it is not within the power of a person to change the objective world, society should not strive for this either.

Epictetus criticizes and condemns the then public order. He emphasizes thoughts about the equality of people, condemns slavery. This is how his views differ from the Stoic doctrine. The central motive of his philosophy - resignation to a given reality - leads, however, to passivity. "Do not want everything to happen as you want, but wish that everything happens as it happens, and it will be good for you in life."

Epictetus considers reason to be the real essence of man. Thanks to him, man participates in the general order of the world. Therefore, one should not worry about well-being, comforts and, in general, bodily pleasures, but only about one's soul.

Just as reason rules over man, so the world mind rules - logos (God). He is the source and determining factor of the development of the world. Things, as a controlled god, should obey him. Freedom and independence, which he attached great importance to. Epictetus limits only to spiritual freedom, freedom of humility with reality.

Epictetus' ethics is essentially rationalistic. And although it is expressively marked by subjectivism, it still protects (in contrast to the irrationalist currents that were forming at that time) the power of the human mind.

In essence, the entire philosophy of Epictetus is an expression of the passive protest of the lower social classes against the existing social order. This protest, however, finds no real way out. Therefore, it translates into a call to come to terms with the existing state of affairs.

Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180) also belongs to the Roman Stoics, during whose reign the crisis phenomena became even more intense. The upper social classes refuse to change anything in order to preserve the existing social order. In Stoic ethics, they see a certain means of moral revival of society. The emperor in his reflections "To himself" proclaims that "the only thing that is in the power of man are his thoughts." “Look into your gut! There, inside, there is a source of good, which is able to beat without running out, if you constantly dig up to it. " He understands the world as eternally flowing and changeable. The main goal of human aspirations should be the achievement of virtue, that is, submission to "reasonable laws of nature in accordance with human nature." Marcus Aurelius recommends: "A calm thought with everything that comes from the outside, and justice with everything that is realized at your own discretion, that is, your desire and action, let them consist in actions that are generally useful, for this is the essence in accordance with your nature."

Marcus Aurelius is the last representative of ancient Stoicism, and in fact this is where Stoicism ends. Certain traces of mysticism appear in his work, which is closely connected with the decline of Roman society. largely influenced the formation of early Christianity.

Epicureanism The only materialistic (for its time, clearly materialistic) philosophy in ancient Rome was epicureanism, which spread significantly in the last years of the Roman Republic and at the beginning of the imperial rule. Its most prominent representative was Titus Lucretius Kar (c. 95–55 BC), who wrote the philosophical poem "On Nature", which is also a valuable work of fiction in the literature of that time.

Lucretius fully identifies his views with the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus; he considered the latter the best Greek philosopher. In his work, he skillfully explains, proves and promotes the views of the early representatives of the atomistic doctrine, consistently defends the basic principles of atomism from both earlier and contemporary opponents, while giving at the same time the most integral and logically ordered interpretation of atomistic philosophy. At the same time, in many cases he develops and deepens the thoughts of Democritus and Epicurus. The only existence Lucretius considers atoms, and emptiness.

Matter, first of all, is the primary bodies of things,

secondly, everything that is a collection of the named elements.

No force, however, can destroy atoms,

they always win with their impenetrability.

The first is deeply different, double character

have those two things as above,

matter and space, everything happens in it;

they are necessary in themselves and are pure.

Where is the void, the so-called space,

there is no matter; and where matter has spread,

there is no emptiness and space in any way.

The first bodies are complete without emptiness.

Secondly, in the things that have arisen, emptiness exists,

next to it is solid matter.

In this form, Lucretius expounds the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus about atoms and emptiness, emphasizing at the same time the inability to create matter as such.

If the first bodies are solid

and without cavities, as I already said,

they are undoubtedly eternal.

Infinity of matter in space is also connected with the indestructibility and inconceivability of matter, that is, with its infinity in time.

The universe itself cannot constrain itself;

truth is the law of nature; he desires the boundaries of matter

formed emptiness, and matter - the boundaries of emptiness,

the merit of this alternation is the endless universe.

Atoms, according to Lucretius, movement is inherent. In solving the problem of movement, he stands on the principles of Epicurus. He tries to substantiate in a certain way deviations from the rectilinear motion of atoms.

Here's what you should know about movement:

if atoms fall vertically in space due to

its own weight, here in an undefined place

and they vaguely deviate from the path

just enough so that the direction is slightly different.

If this deviation did not exist, everything would fall into

the depths of emptiness, down like raindrops,

elements could not collide and connect,

and nature would never create anything.

From this it follows that the Epicurean parenclitic movement for Lucretius is the source of particles. Together with the size and shape of atoms, it is the cause of the variegation and diversity of things in the world.

He considers the soul to be material, a special combination of air and heat. It flows through the whole body and is formed by the finest and smallest atoms.

What matter is the spirit and what does it consist of,

my words will soon be enumerated to you.

First of all, I say that the spirit is extremely subtle;

the bodies that form it are extremely small.

This helps to understand and you yourself will understand that:

nothing happens so fast in the world

as that which the thought itself represents and forms.

This shows that the spirit has the greatest speed,

than everything that is available to the eye;

but what is also movable, it must be composed of bodies

perfectly round and smallest.

In a similar way, he defends atomistic views in the field of the theory of knowledge, which he also developed in many directions.

In Lucretius' understanding of atomistic theory, one can already find the outline of evolutionism. He held the view that everything organic arose from inorganic and that complex organic species developed from protozoa.

Lucretius tries to explain in a natural way the emergence of society. He says that originally people lived in a "semi-wild state", without knowing fire and home. Only the development of material culture leads to the fact that the human herd is gradually turning into a society. Naturally, he could not come to a materialistic understanding of the causes of the emergence and development of human society. His desire for a "natural" explanation was limited by both social and epistemological parameters. However, despite this, his views on society were, in particular, in comparison with the then idealistic approach, significant progress. Just like Epicurus, he believed that society, social organization (law, laws) arise as a product of mutual agreement between people (contract theory):

The neighbors then began to unite in friendship,

No longer wishing to fix lawlessness and enmity,

and the children and the female were taken under guard,

showing with gestures and awkward sounds,

that all should have sympathy for the weak.

Although consent could not be universally recognized,

the best and most part of the contract sacredly fulfilled.

The materialism of Lucretius has its own atheistic consequences. Lucretius not only excludes gods from a world in which everything has natural causes, but also opposes all belief in gods. He criticizes the idea of \u200b\u200blife after death and all other religious myths. Shows that belief in gods arises in a completely natural way, as a product of fear and ignorance of natural causes. In particular, he points to the epistemological origins of the emergence of religious ideas (the disclosure of the social roots of religion was, of course, impossible in his time).

In the field of ethics, Lucretius consistently defends the Epicurean principles of a calm and happy life. Knowledge is the means of achieving happiness. For a person to live happily, he must free himself from fear, in particular from the fear of the gods. He defended these views both from stoic and skeptical criticism, and from their vulgarization in the understanding of some Epicurean supporters from the highest circles of society.

The influence and dissemination of the consistently materialistic and logically integral philosophical system of Lucretius was undoubtedly facilitated by the artistic form of presentation. The poem "On Nature" belongs not only to the heights of Roman philosophical thinking, but also to highly artistic works of its period.

Epicureanism in Roman society was retained for a relatively long time. Even in the era of Aurelian, the Epicurean school was among the most influential philosophical trends. However, when in 313 AD. e. Christianity becomes the official state religion, a stubborn and ruthless struggle begins against Epicureanism, and in particular against the ideas of Lucretius Cara, which ultimately led to the gradual decline of this philosophy.

Roman Epicureanism, in particular the work of Lucretius Cara, marked the pinnacle of materialistic tendencies in Roman philosophy. He became an intermediary link between the materialism of the ancient Greek Stoics and the materialistic currents of modern philosophy.

Skepticism. Another significant philosophical direction of ancient Rome was skepticism. Its main representative Enesidemus of Knossos (c. I century BC) is close in his views to the philosophy of Pyrrho. The influence that Greek skepticism had on the formation of Enesidem's thoughts is evidenced by the fact that his main work he devoted to the interpretation of the teachings of Pyrrho ("Eight books of Pyrrhic discourses").

Enesidem saw skepticism as a way to overcome the dogmatism of all existing philosophical trends. He paid much attention to the analysis of contradictions in the teachings of other philosophers. The conclusion from his skeptical views is that it is impossible to make any judgments about reality based on immediate sensations. To substantiate this conclusion, he is served by the formulations of the so-called tropes, which have already been mentioned.

The next five tropes, which were added by the successor of Enesidemus Agrippa, further increased doubts about the correctness of the ideas of other philosophical trends.

The most prominent representative of the so-called minor skepticism was Sextus Empiricus. His teaching also comes from Greek skepticism. This is evidenced by the title of one of his works - "Foundations of Pyrrhonism". In other works - "Against the dogmatists", "Against mathematicians" - he sets out the methodology of skeptical doubt, based on a critical assessment of the basic concepts of the then knowledge. Critical assessment is directed not only against philosophical concepts, but also against the concepts of mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, grammar, etc. His skeptical approach did not escape the question of the existence of gods, which led him to atheism.

In his works, he seeks to prove that skepticism is an original philosophy that does not allow confusion with other philosophical trends. Sextus Empiricus shows that skepticism differs from all other philosophical currents, each of which recognizes some essences and excludes others, in that it simultaneously questions and admits all essences.

Roman skepticism was a specific expression of the progressive crisis of Roman society. Searches and studies of contradictions between the statements of previous philosophical systems lead skeptics to a broad study of the history of philosophy. And although it is in this direction that skepticism creates a lot of money, on the whole it is already a philosophy that has lost the spiritual strength that lifted ancient thinking to its heights. In essence, skepticism contains more outright rejection than methodological criticism.

Eclecticism. Eclecticism in Rome is much more widespread and important than in Hellenistic Greece. Its supporters include a number of prominent personalities of the Roman political and cultural life both in the last years of the Roman Republic and in the first period of the empire. The most famous among them was the eminent politician and orator Mark Thulius Cicero (106-45 BC), the creator of Latin philosophical terminology.

Representatives of Roman eclecticism possessed an enormous amount of knowledge. In some cases they were true encyclopedists of their era. Their combination of various schools of thought was not accidental and unreasonable, a certain conceptual approach was strengthened precisely by deep knowledge of individual views. The gradual convergence of theory with the field of ethics expressed the general situation in philosophy.

Eclecticism, developing on the basis of academic philosophy, reaches the boundaries of encyclopedism, embracing the knowledge of both nature and society. Cicero belonged, perhaps, to the most significant branch of Roman eclecticism, which developed on the basis of Stoic philosophy.

"Stoic" eclecticism in the presentation of Cicero focuses on social issues, and in particular on ethics. His motive was the combination of those parts of different philosophical systems that bring useful knowledge.

Cicero's social views reflect his position as a representative of the upper strata of Roman society during the republic. He sees the best social order in a combination of three main state forms: monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. He considers the goal of the state to provide citizens with security and free use of property. His theoretical views were largely influenced by his real political activities.

In ethics, he largely adopts the views of the Stoics, pays considerable attention to the problems of virtue set forth by the Stoics. He considers man to be a rational being, which has something divine in itself. He calls virtue the overcoming of all life's adversities by willpower. Philosophy in this matter provides a person with invaluable services. Each of the philosophical directions comes to the achievement of virtue in its own way. Therefore, Cicero recommends to "combine" everything that is the contribution of individual schools of thought, all their achievements into one whole. By this, in fact, he defends his eclecticism.

Neoplatonism. The progressive crisis of Roman society in the last years of the republic and in the early years of the empire is naturally reflected in philosophy. Mistrust in the rational development of the world, to a greater or lesser extent manifested in various philosophical directions, together with the increasing influence of Christianity, more and more strengthened the multiplying signs of mysticism. The irrational movements of this era tried in different ways to adapt to the changing role of philosophy. Neo-Pythagorean philosophy, of which Apollonius of Tkana was a typical representative, tried to strengthen itself by returning to the mysticism of numbers, bordering on charlatanism; the philosophy of Philo of Alexandria (30s BC - 50 AD) sought to combine Greek philosophy with the Jewish religion. In both concepts, mysticism manifests itself in a concentrated form.

More interesting was Neoplatonism, which developed in the 3rd-5th centuries AD. e .; in the last century of the Roman Empire. It is the last integral philosophical movement that arose during the period of antiquity. Neoplatonism takes shape in the same social setting as Christianity. Like the rest of the irrationalist philosophical trends of late antiquity, neoplatonism, to a certain extent, is a manifestation of the rejection of the rationalism of previous philosophical thinking. It is a specific reflection of social despair and the progressive decomposition of social relations on which the Roman Empire was based. Its founder was Ammonius Saccas (175–242), and the most prominent representative of Plotinus (205–270).

Plotinus believed that the basis of all that exists is a supersensible, supernatural, overmind divine principle. All forms of being depend on it. Plotinus declares this principle to be absolute being and says about it that it is unknowable. "This being is and remains God, does not exist outside of him, but is precisely his very identity." This only true being is comprehensible only through penetration into the very center of pure contemplation to pure thinking, which becomes possible only with the "rejection" of thought-ecstasy (extasis). Everything else that exists in the world is derived from this one true being. Nature, according to Plotinus, was created so that the divine principle (light) penetrates through matter (darkness). Plotinus even creates a certain gradation of existence from external (real, true) to the lowest, subordinate (inauthentic). At the tops of this gradation is the divine principle, then - the divine soul, and below all - nature.

Simplifying somewhat, we can say that the divine principle of Plotinus is an absolutization and a certain deformation of the world of Plato's ideas. Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. She is for him a certain transition from the divine to the material. The soul is something alien to the material, bodily and external in relation to them. This understanding of the soul distinguishes the views of Plotinus from the views of not only the Epicureans, but also the Greek and Roman Stoics. According to Plotinus' ideas, the soul is not organically connected with the body. She is part of the common soul. The bodily is the bond of the soul, worthy only of overcoming. "Plotinus, as it were, pushes aside the bodily, sensual and is not interested in explaining its existence, but only wants to cleanse it from it, so that the universal soul and our soul do not suffer damage." The emphasis on "spiritual" (good) leads him to the complete suppression of all bodily and material (evil). This translates into the preaching of asceticism. When Plotinus speaks of the material and sensible world, he characterizes it as inauthentic being, as non-existent, “having in itself a certain image of existent”. By its nature, inauthentic existence has no form, properties or any signs. This solution to the main philosophical problematics in Plotinus marks his ethics. The principle of goodness is connected with the only truly existing - with the divine mind, or soul. On the contrary, the opposite of good - evil is associated and identified with inauthentic being, that is, with the sensible world. From these positions, Plotinus proceeds to the problems of the theory of knowledge. For him, the only true knowledge is the knowledge of true being, that is, the divine principle. The latter, of course, cannot be comprehended by sensory knowledge; it is also not cognizable in a rational way. The only way to approach the divine principle Plotinus considers (as already mentioned) ecstasy, which is achieved only by spiritual effort - mental concentration and suppression of everything bodily.

The philosophy of Plotinus specifically expresses the hopelessness and insolubility of contradictions that become all-encompassing. This is the most expressive harbinger of the end of ancient culture.

Porfiry (c. 232-304) became a direct disciple of Plotinus and the continuer of his teachings. He showed great attention to the study of the works of Plotinus, published and commented on them, compiled a biography of Plotinus. Porfiry was also engaged in the study of problems of logic, as evidenced by his "Introduction to the categories of Aristotle", which initiated the dispute about the real existence of the common.

The mystical teaching of Plotinus is continued by two other neoplatonic schools. One of them is the Syrian school, the founder and most prominent representative of which was Iamblichus (late 3rd - early 4th centuries AD). From the surviving part of his great creative heritage, one can judge that in addition to the traditional range of problems of neo-Platonic philosophy, he was also occupied with other problems, such as mathematics, astronomy, music theory, etc.

In philosophy, he develops the thoughts of Plotinus concerning the divine principle, mind and soul. Among these Plotinovsky essences, he distinguishes others, transitional.

Also noteworthy is his attempt to substantiate antique polytheism in the spirit of Plotinus' philosophy. Simultaneously with the divine principle as the only truly existing, he recognizes a number of other deities (12 heavenly gods, the number of which he then increases to 36 and further to 360; then there are 72 earthly gods and 42 gods of nature). This is essentially a mystical-speculative attempt to preserve the ancient image of the world in the face of the coming Christianity.

Another school of Neoplatonism - the Athenian - is represented by Proclus (412–485). His work in a certain sense is the completion and systematization of neo-Platonic philosophy. He fully accepts the philosophy of Plotinus, but in addition to this he publishes and interprets Plato's dialogues, in the comments to which he expresses original observations and conclusions.

It should be noted that Proclus gives the clearest explanation and presentation of the principle of the dialectical triad, in which he distinguishes three main points of development:

2. Separation of the already created from the creator.

3. Return of the created to the creator.

The conceptual dialectics of ancient Neoplatonism is marked by mysticism, which reaches its peak in this concept.

Both neo-Platonic schools deepen and systematically develop the basic ideas of Plotinus' mysticism. This philosophy, with its irrationalism, aversion to everything bodily, emphasis on asceticism and the doctrine of ecstasy, had a significant impact not only on early Christian philosophy, but also on medieval theological thinking.

We have traced the emergence and development of ancient philosophy. For the first time practically all the main philosophical problems crystallized in it, the basic ideas about the subject of philosophy were formed and, although not explicitly, the problem was posed, which F. Engels formulated as the main question of philosophy. In ancient philosophical systems, philosophical materialism and idealism were already expressed, which in many ways influenced subsequent philosophical concepts. Lenin declared that the history of philosophy has always been an arena for the struggle between two main trends - materialism and idealism. The immediacy and, in a sense, the straightforwardness of the philosophical, thinking of the ancient Greeks and Romans make it possible to realize and more easily understand the essence of the most important problems that accompany the development of philosophy from its inception to the present day. In the philosophical thinking of antiquity, in a much clearer form than it happens later, worldview clashes and struggles are projected.

The initial unity of philosophy and the expanding special scientific knowledge, their systemic allocation explain very clearly the relationship between philosophy and special (special) sciences.

Philosophy permeates the entire spiritual life of ancient society, it was an integral factor in ancient culture. The wealth of ancient philosophical thinking, the posing of problems and their solution were the source from which the philosophical thought of subsequent millennia drew.

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PHILOSOPHY OF NEW TIME AND ERA OF EDUCATION, GERMAN CLASSICAL

ROMAN PHILOSOPHY

ROMAN PHILOSOPHY

antique the Hellenistic period (3rd – 2nd centuries BC - 5–6th centuries). We can talk about the separation from this Hellenistic. philosophy proper Roman, associated with those philosophers, to-rye had a special to Rome itself.

Western Rome. developed on the basis of large-scale slavery and land ownership, the conquest of vast territories, which led to the subordination of many. nationalities, which caused the creation of a huge bureaucratic apparatus and the development of sophisticated politicians. management methods. To implement these polit. tasks needed a finely developed, synthesis of unprecedented universalism and unprecedented subjectivism. The Romans were characterized by a combination of maximum practicality and theoretical. aspirations, which resulted in the creation of a large number of studies in various fields of science. R. f. reflected this combination of practicality and logical. sophistication, universalism and whimsical subjectivism.

Main R.'s periods f. stand out according to the stages of development of Rome. While Roman slavery and land ownership grew purely quantitatively, Rome. Philos. sought to go beyond the narrow horizons of the classical. polis and related semi-religious, semi-secular mythology, sought to move away from the old religious and mythological forms. But when the Roman slave-owning empire became a world empire, it demanded a religious and mythological consecration. Hence the corresponding periodization of R. f.

The first period (3rd – 1st centuries BC) can be called the pro-epoch or the period of secularization, i.e. liberation scientific. thoughts from submission to religion and mythology. The growing up demanded rights for himself and wanted to protect himself in every possible way from those societies. catastrophes, which were accompanied by growth as Rome. republics and Rome. empire. Already among the first representatives of Rome. literature was, for example, the writer Quintus Annius, who compiled the op. under the name "Eugemer", the surviving fragments of which testify to the great popularity of the Greek in Rome. the enlightener Eugemer. During this period in Rome. soil developed, which soon became almost official. the doctrine of Rome. states, with their demands to free the individual from any dependence, with their materialism, providentialism and fatalism - the circle of Scipio the Younger (2nd half of the 2nd century BC), to which belonged the satirist Gaius Lucilius, Cicero. The teacher of these Scipio Stoics was the greatest Greek. Stoic Panetius. Panetius and his many disciples [besides those mentioned - Quintus Tuberon, Mucius Scsevola, Rutilius Rufus, Aelius Stilon (teacher of Varro)] brought Stoicism closer to the vital needs of the growing Roman Republic and instead of the morality of the complete apathy of the former Stoics, they recognized the living in man. Epicureanism was introduced, besides Siron and Philodemus, by Lucretius. In his philosophy, R. f. embraced everything in all its universality and deeply understood the subtlest subject on the path of his complete liberation from this and the afterlife. Finally, the third school of early Hellenism, which found for itself in the Middle Academy, as well as the New Academy, also had such adherents in Rome as Varro, representatives of the Sextii school. Varro later exerted a fruitful influence on the architect Vitruvius, writer and scientist Pliny the Elder. Many went from Epicureanism to Stoicism, such as the poets Virgil and Horace.

Second period (1st century BC - 2nd century). In connection with the end of the republic in Rome and the emergence of the empire of the R. f. could no longer remain only in educational positions. This was the period of the initial sakra lisation, i.e. reverse secularization of the process of subordination to scientific. thoughts of religion and mythology.

The formation of a huge world slave-owning power contributed to the establishment of absolutist government, the organization of huge human masses and, above all, an incredibly expanded slave population. In the conditions of the ancient world, such absolutism received religious sanctification and design. The emperor was established, and since then the whole philosophy, the further, the more it acquired not only Caesarean, but also theological. ... Already Virgil, in his youth an Epicurean, later, moving on to the chanting of Rome. empire, definitely took this path socio-political. sacralization, Ovid ended with the same, at first, exiled from Rome. In 1 century. BC. made a famous representative of the Greek. The middle Stay - Posidonius, to-ry reformed Stoicism in religious-mythological, Platonic. direction, as a result of which the Stoic current appeared. Platonism, or the Middle Stand, in its later form, which received great distribution in Rome. Pythagorean-Platonic. it is possible to assume even in such rim Stoics 1 c. BC, as Sextius, Sotion, Nigidius Figulus. The largest representatives of R. f. in this respect Seneca, Epictetus and Aurelius appeared. Seneca's teacher was Attalus, and Epictetus's teacher was Mouzonius Rufus. Sacralization was not so strong here as to drown out other philosophies. currents. Still alive was such an unsacralized philosophy as cynical, to a cut in the 1st century. AD should include Demetrius, Oenomai, Demonax, Peregrinus, Theagen, Dion Chrysostom. Stoicism of that time was easily combined with scientific astronomical studies. research - Manilius, Germanicus, and allegorical. mythological. interpretations - Kornut, and with poetic. creativity - the pupils of Cornut Persius and Lucan, with historiography - Tacitus, and went as far as preaching honest simplicity of morals, as, for example, in Columella. Purely practical the direction of stoicism of this time was represented by Cato Utichesky, Pet Trazei and Helvidius Priscus. One can also note the influence of late skepticism (Enesidem, Sextus Empiricus and his student Saturninus, an Italic), late Epicureanism (Diogenes of Enoanda), as well as the peripatetic school.

The third period (2–3 centuries) is the period of developed sacralization of philo phi and i. It remained its tool. However, now Platonism has begun to decide. the fight against stoicism, with which he recently united. To drive out the stoic. elements from Platonism, Rome. the philosophers of this time used Aristotle (replacing him with the concepts of the ancient Stoics), and also, along with which not only the mystics were introduced into philosophy. numeric operations, but also intense religion. ... This led to eclecticism, but with a strongly pronounced sacralized tendency, which prepared the next period of the R. f. Now they no longer studied with the Stoics, but with the Pythagorean Platonists of the Plutarch type. Plutarch's disciples were Guy (to-rogo should not be mistaken for the famous lawyer Guy) and Favorin, while Guy's disciples were Albin (to-rogo listened to the Roman physician and logician Galen) and Apuleius from Madavra. Apuleius worked out the sacralization of this period not only philosophical, but also arts. methods. Guy's school also included the anonymous commentator on Plato's Theetetus. The Platonists include Calvisius Taurus (teacher Aulus Gellius, as well as his student and friend Herod Atticus and their contemporary Nigrin). To this circle belonged also Nicostratus, Atticus and his student Harpocration, the famous critic of Christianity Celsus, Sever - commentator on Plato's Timaeus and the grammar Censorinus. Neopythagoreans were Moderat, Sextus ("Florilegius"), Secund (personal acquaintance of Emperor Adrian). From christ. literature from this period includes op. Manucius Felix, Tertullian, Cecilius, Cyprian, Novatian, Commodian. Certain Gnostics (see Gnosticism), for example. Valentine, too, were associated with Rome.

The fourth period of R. f. (3-4 centuries) is the culmination of sacralized philosophy - neoplatonism. In neo-Platonism on the absolute idealistic. the synthesis of universalism and subjectivism prevailed. The founder of Neoplatonism, Plotinus, with his disciples Amelius and Porfiry, lived and worked in Rome, so this initial neo-Platonism is still in Rome. neoplatonism. Subsequent Antich. schools of Neoplatonism developed already in Asia Minor, Athens and Alexandria. But the seal is Rome. universalism lies with them. Traditions Rome. neo-Platonism continued Christ. Augustine and Rome. imp. Julian, apostate from Christianity. In the 4th century. Arnobius and Lactantius bring the sacralization of philosophy to a complete abolition of philosophy itself, which Lactantius especially frankly declared.

The fifth period of R. f. (4th - 5th centuries, although some figures attributed to this period lived in the 6th century) is characterized by some weakening of the Neoplatonic. sacralization of philosophy, which is also characteristic of Athenian and Alexandrian Neoplatonism. These philosophers translated more Greeks into lat. lang., more commented on Plato and Aristotle and more engaged in the collection of historical and philosophical. and historical-religious. materials than the development of their own. concepts. These include the Neoplatonists lat. West: Cornelius Labeon, Chalcidius, Marius Victorinus, Vettius, Agorius Pretextatus, Macrobius, Favonius, Eulogius, from Christ. thinkers, theologians and poets - Prudentius, Peacock, Firmik Matern, Jerome of Stridonsky, Ambrose of Mediolansky.

The sixth period (5-6 centuries) is already a transition to cf. centuries. The Neoplatonists Boethius and Marcian Capella belong to this period. Sacralized R. f. was so strong that it even survived the fall of Rome. empire, and the fall of all Greco-Rome. paganism. She formed the basis of the theocratic. ideology cf. centuries, in one form or another. It appeared more than once in time. During the Renaissance and in subsequent centuries, Rome. neoplatonism in the fight against the Middle-century. monotheism took educational forms. Rome. the thinkers Lucretius, Cicero, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, Apuleius became masters of thoughts no less, and sometimes even more than Plato and Aristotle.

Lit .: K. Marx, Notebooks on the history of epicurean, stoic and skeptical philosophy, in the book: K. Marx and F. Engels, From early works, M., 1956; History of Philosophy, vol. 1, [M.], 1940, sec. 4; History of Philosophy, vol. 1, M., 1957, ch. 2, sec. five; Ancient Rome. thinkers. Testimonies, texts, fragments, comp. A. A. Avetisyan, [K.], 1958; Harder R., Die Einbürgerung der Philosophie in Rom, in: Die Antike, Bd 5, V.-Lpz., 1929; Kaerst J., Scipio Ämilianus, die Stoa und der Prinzipat, "Neue Jahrbücher für Wissenschaft und Jugend bildung", 1929, Jg. 5, H. 6, S. 653-75; Heinemann I., Die griechische Weltanschauungslehre bei Juden und Römern, B. 1932; Seel O., Römische Denker und römischer Staat, Lpz., 1937; Heuer K. H., Comitas, facilitas, liberalitas. Studien zur gesellschaftlichen Kultur der ciceronischen Zeit, Lengerich, 1941; Bracher K. D., Verfall und Fortschritt im Denken der frühen römischen Kaiserzeit. Studien zur Zeitgefühl und Geschichtsbewußtsein des Jahrhunderts nach Augustus, Tübingen, 1949; Clarke M. L., The roman mind; studies in the history of thought from Cicero to Marcus Aurelius, Camb., 1956; , La science hellénistique et romaine, in: La science antique et médiévale, P., 1957, S. 301-413; Gigon O., Die Erneuerung der Philosophie in der Zeit Ciceros, in: Entretiens sur l "antiquité classique, t. 3, Gen., 1955, S. 23–61; Heinze R., Vom Geist des Römertums, 3 Aufl ., Darmstadt, 1960; Kro11 W., Die Kultur der ciceronischen Zeit, Bd 1–2, Lpz., 1963.

A. Losev. Moscow.

Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .

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