- (from Latin pluralis - plural) philosophical position, according to which there are several or many independent and irreducible beginnings or types of being (P. in ontology), foundations and forms of knowledge (P. in epistemology). The term "P. Great Soviet Encyclopedia

1. The origins of philosophical pluralism

Pluralism (from Lat.pluralis - plural) is a philosophical concept, according to which there are many independent and irreducible beginnings, or types of being (pluralism in ontology), or forms of cognition (pluralism in epistemology), equal and sovereign individuals and groups ( pluralism in ethics and sociology), values \u200b\u200band value orientations, expressed in diverse ideologies and beliefs competing with each other and fighting for recognition (pluralism in axiology).

The period of the formation of philosophy falls on a special moment in the history of cultural self-determination of ancient civilizations, when worldview knowledge, its origins and deep meaning, from ancient times surrounded by a halo of mystery, became the object of comprehension and rational analysis on the part of free lovers of wisdom. This process captures, first of all, the ancient Greek world. The sharp strengthening of trade and cultural ties between Greek city-states and neighboring, more ancient civilizations, such as Egypt, gave rise to the process of interpenetration of cultures, religious beliefs, world order systems, and philosophical teachings. This inevitably shattered the integrity of the archaic world view. The conventionality, relativity and contradictions of the old worldview schemes were becoming more and more recognized. 1

A common understanding of the world was replaced by a multitude of different, often competing models of the world, moral attitudes, religious teachings, etc. From a worldview as something absolute, indisputable and unified, people moved to a new cultural reality - to the fact of the plurality of their views on the world order.

The basis for the ideological choice was the adherence to cultural tradition, faith or reasonable arguments, that is, cultural, historical, psychological and epistemological components. Philosophers began to be called those who relied in their judgments on reason and rational argumentation. Philosophical rationality means a specific way of activating the mechanisms of thinking for the purpose of an impartial, free from subjectivity, consideration of a problem. Historically, philosophical rationality is formed precisely in the conditions of the collapse of a common perception of the world for an archaic society. A person found himself in such a life situation when the opportunity arose, and then the need for his own choice of a certain view of the world, not constrained by the burden of traditions, one or another authority, any principles of previous religious beliefs. The situation of free choice demanded a search for some objective grounds.

The first immediate consequence of this was the pluralism of philosophical systems. Where there was philosophy, there arose not only an appeal to logical arguments, but also intellectual confrontation, dialogue, dispute. The development proceeded from the pluralism of worldviews as a feature of the cultural life of the era through rationality to the pluralism of philosophical systems. The intensive and diverse experience of philosophizing already at the first stage of the formation of philosophical consciousness showed that in matters of the world order and spiritual self-determination of a person, rational argumentation in itself does not lead to the development of any unified worldview.

Philosophical concepts about the origins of being were divided into monism (the world has one beginning), dualism (affirming the equality of two origins: matter and consciousness, physical and mental) and pluralism. 2

Pluralism presupposes several or many underlying foundations. It is based on the statement about the plurality of foundations and beginnings of being. An example here is the theory of ancient thinkers, who put forward such diverse principles as earth, water, air, fire, etc. as the basis of everything.

The question of the origin of all that exists is also related to the question of the knowability of the world, or the identity of thought and being. Some thinkers believed that the question of the truth of knowledge could not be finally decided and, moreover, the world is fundamentally unknowable. They were called agnostics (Protagoras, Kant), and the philosophical position they represent is agnosticism (from the Greek agnostos - unknowable). A negative answer to this question was also given by representatives of a direction related to agnosticism - skepticism, who denied the possibility of reliable knowledge. He found his highest manifestation in some representatives of ancient Greek philosophy (Pyrrho and others). Other thinkers, on the contrary, believe in the strength and power of reason and knowledge and affirm the ability of a person to receive reliable knowledge, objective truth.

The history of philosophy testifies to the confrontation between pluralism and monism, which asserted the uniqueness of the fundamental principle of being. This was characteristic of the philosophy of the late XIX - early XX century. Along with monism in this period, there was a dualistic interpretation of being and knowledge - the distinction in neo-Kantianism of the natural sciences and the sciences of the spirit in accordance with their methods and the subject of research. Later, pluralism in ontology and epistemology came to the fore.

In modern philosophy, pluralism is most clearly represented in personalism, which proceeds from the uniqueness of each personality, its irreducibility to anthropological and social forces, connects the personality with free will and creativity (N. Berdyaev, Munier). Personalistic pluralism and pluralism in axiology, which emphasize the diversity of values, affirm the enduring value of Christianity and the religious community as a unifying principle of social life.

The great German philosopher GV Leibniz (1646–1716) was a classic of pluralism, although the term itself was suggested by his student H. Wolf (1679–1754).

From the point of view of Leibniz, the real world consists of an infinite number of mentally active substances, indivisible primary elements of being - monads. Monads (separate things, substances) are in relation to a pre-established harmony that was created by God. Thus, philosophical pluralism approaches a religious and idealistic view of the world.

At the end of the 19th - 20th centuries, pluralism became widespread and developed both in androcentric philosophical conceptions, absolutizing the uniqueness of personal experience (personalism, existentialism), as well as in epistemology (the theory of knowledge - the pragmatism of William James, the philosophy of Karl Popper) and, especially, its theoretical pluralism. follower of Paul Feyrabend.

Epistemological pluralism at its core emphasizes the subjectivity of knowledge and will in the process of cognition (James), the historical (Popper) and social (Feyerabend) conditionality of knowledge, and criticizes the classical scientific methodology. Thus, it is one of the premises of a number of anti-scientist currents (which basically emphasize the limited possibilities of science, and in their extreme forms they interpret it as a force alien and hostile to the true essence of man).

Various philosophical schools and directions, in accordance with their specificity and understanding of the subject of philosophy, formulate and use various philosophical methods. Pluralism of philosophical concepts implies the following division of philosophical methods: 3

materialism and idealism, acting as the most general approaches and ways of considering being and cognition. The theory of knowledge from the very beginning is largely determined by what is taken as primary: matter or consciousness, spirit or nature, that is, materialistic or idealistic premises. In the first case, the general process of cognition is viewed as a reflection of objective reality in consciousness; in the second, as a self-knowledge of consciousness, an absolute idea, initially present in things (objective idealism), or as an analysis of our own sensations (subjective idealism). In other words, ontology largely determines epistemology.

dialectics and metaphysics. By dialectics they mean, first of all, the doctrine of the most general laws of the development of being and cognition; at the same time, it also acts as a general method of mastering reality. Dialectics is compatible with both materialism and idealism. In the first case, it appears as a materialist dialectic, in the second, as an idealistic dialectic. The classical representative of idealistic dialectics is GVF Hegel, who created the system of dialectics as a theory and method of cognition. And the classics of materialist dialectics are K. Marx and F. Engels, who gave it a holistic and scientific character. A feature of metaphysics is the tendency to create an unambiguous, static picture of the world, the desire for absolutization and isolated consideration of certain moments or fragments of life.

sensualism (from Latin sensus - feeling) is a methodological principle in which feelings are taken as the basis of cognition and which seeks to derive all knowledge from the activity of the senses, sensations, absolutizing their role in cognition (Epicurus, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Holbach, Feuerbach and etc.);

rationalism (from Latin ratio - reason) - a method according to which the basis of knowledge and action of people is reason (Spinoza, Leibniz, Descartes, Hegel, etc.);

irrationalism is a philosophical method that denies or limits the role of reason in cognition, and focuses on irrational ways of comprehending life (Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Dilthey, Bergson, Heidegger, etc.).

2. Philosophy and religion

Philosophy and religion have completely different tasks and forms of spiritual activity. Religion implies a life in communion with God, with the aim of satisfying the personal need of the human soul for salvation, in finding the ultimate strength and satisfaction, unshakable peace of mind and joy. Philosophy is essentially independent of any personal interests and comprehends being by considering their absolute fundamental principle.

Being heterogeneous forms of spiritual life, philosophy and religion coincide with each other in the sense that both of them are realizable only through the orientation of consciousness to the same object - to God, more precisely, through the living, experiential discretion of God.

It seems unlikely to modern consciousness that the absolute, which in philosophy is needed as the highest logical category that unites and organizes the theoretical comprehension of being, coincides with a living personal God, which is required by religious faith. The religious idea of \u200b\u200bGod contradicts the goals of philosophy in the relation that presupposes in the nature of God and therefore in the living relation to God a moment of mystery, incomprehensibility, inadequacy to the human mind, while the task of philosophy is precisely to fully understand and explain the fundamental principle of being. Everything that is logically proven, understood, completely clear, is thereby deprived of its religious significance. God, proved mathematically, is no longer the same as the god of religious faith. It follows from this that even if philosophy really knew the true God, proved His existence, clarified His properties, it would have deprived Him of the meaning that He has for religion, that is, it would have killed the most precious thing in living religious faith.

Philosophy and religion seek to answer questions about the place of man in the world, about the relationship between man and the world, the source of good and evil. Like religion, philosophy is inherent in transcending, that is, going beyond the boundaries of experience, beyond the possible, irrationalism, there is an element of faith in it. However, religion requires unquestioning faith, in it faith is higher than reason, while philosophy proves its truths by appealing to reason, to reasonable arguments. Philosophy always welcomes any scientific discoveries as conditions for expanding our knowledge about the world.

There are two opposite traditions in understanding the relationship between philosophy and faith, and both of these traditions have roots in the church consciousness.

One tradition comes from the Church Fathers of the Alexandrian school. In it, philosophy is not opposed to faith.... Philo of Alexandria tried to link and reconcile Hellenic wisdom and Christian faith. A statement by an unknown author who belonged to this school has survived: "Christ is philosophy itself." Hellenic philosophy was interpreted by the Alexandrian teacher of the Church, St. Clement, as "parenting to Christ." Theological thought, begun by the great Alexandrians, assimilated categories, concepts, and the language of Greek philosophy.

On the other hand, the tradition of opposing Christianity and pagan wisdom, faith and philosophy is no less strong. From the point of view of this reasoning, faith is opposite to rational understanding, with which philosophy always associates itself, faith is opposite to reason.

The essence of modern discussions about the relationship between philosophy and religion is that if the position of non-opposition between philosophy and faith prevails in theological literature, then philosophical reflections indicate the danger of philosophy losing its cause and turning it into something else, for example, theosophy. In their theological articles, the authors rely on the tradition coming from the Alexandrian school,they point out that philosophy was understood by the Holy Fathers, on the one hand, as ascetic practice, clever monastic activity, and on the other hand, cognition of existence as a more abstract intellectual activity. Cognition of the existing is understood as the knowledge of the created world that is not conceivable outside the relationship to the Creator. Thus, the relationship of faith and knowledge, carried out by the integral mind of a person rooted in faith, is not antinomical in Orthodoxy.

Philosophy has always closely interacted with theology, rational thought was embedded in dogmatic disputes and the formulation of the most important dogmas. Thus, theological articles often deal with how things should be or analyze the reasons for the secularization of philosophy in the Western Church. Disputes about the meeting of religion and philosophy can hardly be resolved into some final objective decision, it would contradict the eternal indecision of philosophy and the great freedom of faith.

The relationship between religion and philosophy lies in the understanding of the nature and functions of religion, as well as the philosophical substantiation of the existence of God, reasoning about his nature and relation to the world and man. In a narrower sense, the philosophy of religion is understood as an autonomous philosophical reasoning about deity and religion, a special type of philosophizing. There is no unanimity among philosophers in understanding the nature and function of the philosophy of religion. Nevertheless, the philosophy of religion undoubtedly has an objectively established subject area, constantly reproduced forms of implementation, rather stable differences from other areas of philosophical knowledge - from theology, religious disciplines. 4

It represents a special type of philosophizing, demonstrating the diversity of historical forms of realization. The general subject area of \u200b\u200bthe overwhelming majority of varieties of modern philosophy of religion is formed by the study and comprehension of theism in various aspects, as well as the substantiation of traditional, "classical" theism or the construction of philosophical alternatives to classical theism. Modern philosophers understand theism as a set of certain religious and metaphysical statements, the core of which is the concept of God. God is perceived as an infinite, eternal, uncreated, perfect personal reality. He created everything that exists outside of him, he is transcendental in relation to everything that exists, but retains an effective presence in the world).

The main object of the philosophical study of religion, the topic of diverse philosophical and research approaches to religion is religious beliefs. Beliefs refers to religious knowledge, and such that is taken for granted. Beliefs are what believers, adherents of one religion or another, know about divine reality, about the world and about themselves.

Within the framework of the problematic of the validity and rationality of religious beliefs, two main positions are possible: philosophically reasoned doubt, denial of the legitimacy of these beliefs from the point of view of reason - philosophical confirmation of the compliance of religious beliefs with accepted or innovative standards of rationality. Both of these positions are opposed to fideism (the assertion of the unconditional legitimacy of the content of religious beliefs - regardless of the assessments of reason, philosophical, in particular).

Literature:

1. Balashov L.E. Philosophy: Textbook. 3rd ed., With corrections and additions - M., 2008.

2. Vasilenko V. Concise Religious and Philosophical Dictionary, 1996

3. Voronina N.Yu. Philosophy: in search of yourself: Introductory course of lectures: textbook. allowance. - Samara: Samar. humanizes. acad., 2001

4. V.N. Lavrinenko "Philosophy. Series: Institutiones ": Jurist; 1998

5. Lazarev F.V., Trifonova M.K. Philosophy. Study guide - Simferopol: SONAT, 1999

6. A.A. Radugin Reader on philosophy: textbook

7. Stolovich L. Pluralism in philosophy and philosophy of pluralism - Tallinn, 2004.

8. Yakushev A.V. Philosophy (lecture notes). - M .: Prior-publishing house, 2004

Philosophy Textbook edited by V.D. Gubina, T.Yu. Sidorina, V.P. Filatova Moscow TONE / TONE 1997

1 Lazarev F.V., Trifonova M.K. Philosophy. Textbook. - Simferopol: SONAT, 1999 - p.60-63

2 Lavrinenko V.N. "Philosophy. Series: Institutiones ": Jurist; 1998 - pp. 6-8

3 Lavrinenko V.N. "Philosophy. Series: Institutiones ": Jurist; 1998 - pp 20 - 24

4 Yakushev A.V. Philosophy (lecture notes). - M .: Prior-publishing house, 2004

Philosophy Textbook edited by V.D. Gubina, T.Yu. Sidorina, V.P. Filatova Moscow TONE / TONE 1997 - p. 320-322

Signs of totalitarianism ………………………………………………… ..8 3. Ideological origins and the prerequisites for a totalitarian political ... if possible, in philosophical side of issues of totalitarianism, ... religion, etc.), rejecting political pluralismintolerant of dissent. If a...

Pluralism (from Lat.pluralis - plural) is a philosophical concept, according to which there are many independent and irreducible beginnings, or types of being (pluralism in ontology), or forms of cognition (pluralism in epistemology), equal and sovereign individuals and groups ( pluralism in ethics and sociology), values \u200b\u200band value orientations, expressed in diverse ideologies and beliefs, competing with each other and fighting for recognition (pluralism in axiology) Vasilenko V. A Brief Religious and Philosophical Dictionary. - M .: Nauka, 1996 .-- P. 352.

The period of formation of philosophy falls on a special moment in the history of cultural self-determination of ancient civilizations, when worldview knowledge, its origins and deep meaning, from ancient times surrounded by an aura of mystery, became the object of comprehension and rational analysis on the part of free lovers of wisdom. This process captures, first of all, the ancient Greek world. The sharp strengthening of trade and cultural ties between Greek city-states and neighboring, more ancient civilizations, such as Egypt, gave rise to the process of interpenetration of cultures, religious beliefs, world order systems, and philosophical teachings. This inevitably shattered the integrity of the archaic world view. The conventionality, relativity and contradictoriness of the old world outlook schemes were increasingly recognized.

A common understanding of the world was replaced by many different, often competing models of the world, moral attitudes, religious teachings, etc. From the worldview as something absolute, indisputable and unified, people moved on to a new cultural reality - to the fact of the plurality of their views on the world order.

The basis for the ideological choice was the adherence to cultural tradition, faith or reasonable arguments, that is, cultural-historical, psychological and epistemological components. Philosophers began to be called those who relied in their judgments on reason and rational argumentation. Philosophical rationality means a specific way of activating the mechanisms of thinking for the purpose of an impartial, free from subjectivism, consideration of the problem. Historically, philosophical rationality is formed precisely in the conditions of the collapse of a common perception of the world for an archaic society. A person found himself in such a life situation when the opportunity arose, and then the need for his own choice of a certain view of the world, not constrained by the burden of traditions, one or another authority, any principles of previous religious beliefs. The situation of free choice demanded a search for some objective grounds.

The first immediate consequence of this was the pluralism of philosophical systems. Where there was philosophy, there arose not only an appeal to logical arguments, but also intellectual confrontation, dialogue, dispute. Development proceeded from the pluralism of worldviews as a feature of the cultural life of the era through rationality to the pluralism of philosophical systems. The intensive and diverse experience of philosophizing already at the first stage of the formation of philosophical consciousness showed that in matters of the world order and spiritual self-determination of a person, rational argumentation in itself does not lead to the development of any unified worldview.

Philosophical concepts about the origins of being were divided into monism (the world has one beginning), dualism (affirming the equality of two origins: matter and consciousness, physical and mental) and pluralism L.E. Balashov. Philosophy: Textbook. 3rd ed., With corrections and additions - M. Progress, 2008. - P.54.

Pluralism presupposes several or many underlying foundations. It is based on the statement about the plurality of foundations and beginnings of being. An example here is the theory of ancient thinkers, who put forward such diverse principles as earth, water, air, fire, etc. as the basis of everything.

The question of the origin of all that exists is also related to the question of the knowability of the world, or of the identity of thought and being. Some thinkers believed that the question of the truth of knowledge could not be finally decided and, moreover, the world is fundamentally unknowable. They were called agnostics (Protagoras, Kant), and the philosophical position they represent is agnosticism (from the Greek agnostos - unknowable). A negative answer to this question was also given by representatives of a direction related to agnosticism - skepticism, who denied the possibility of reliable knowledge. He found his highest manifestation in some representatives of ancient Greek philosophy (Pyrrho and others). Other thinkers, on the contrary, believe in the strength and power of reason and knowledge and affirm the ability of a person to receive reliable knowledge, objective truth.

The history of philosophy testifies to the confrontation between pluralism and monism, which asserted the uniqueness of the fundamental principle of being. This was characteristic of the philosophy of the late XIX - early XX century. Along with monism in this period, there was a dualistic interpretation of being and knowledge - the distinction in neo-Kantianism of the natural sciences and the sciences of the spirit in accordance with their methods and the subject of research. Later, pluralism in the ontology and epistemology of N.Yu. Voronina came to the fore. Philosophy: in search of yourself: Introductory course of lectures: textbook. allowance. - Samara: Samar. humanizes. acad., 2001 .-- S. 63.

In modern philosophy, pluralism is most clearly represented in personalism, which proceeds from the uniqueness of each personality, its irreducibility to anthropological and social forces, connects the personality with free will and creativity (N. Berdyaev, Munier). Personalistic pluralism and pluralism in axiology, which emphasize the diversity of values, affirm the enduring value of Christianity and the religious community as a unifying principle of social life.

The classic of pluralism was the great German philosopher G.W. Leibniz (1646-1716), although the term itself was proposed by his student H. Wolf (1679-1754).

From the point of view of Leibniz, the real world consists of an infinite number of mentally active substances, indivisible primary elements of being - monads. Monads (separate things, substances) are in relation to a pre-established harmony that was created by God. Thus, philosophical pluralism approaches a religious and idealistic view of the world.

At the end of the 19th - 20th centuries, pluralism became widespread and developed both in androcentric philosophical conceptions, absolutizing the uniqueness of personal experience (personalism, existentialism), as well as in epistemology (the theory of knowledge - the pragmatism of William James, the philosophy of Karl Popper) and, especially, its theoretical pluralism. follower of Paul Feyrabend.

Epistemological pluralism at its core emphasizes the subjectivity of knowledge and will in the process of cognition (James), the historical (Popper) and social (Feyerabend) conditionality of knowledge, and criticizes the classical scientific methodology. Thus, it is one of the premises of a number of anti-scientist currents (which basically emphasize the limited possibilities of science, and in their extreme forms they interpret it as a force alien and hostile to the true essence of man).

Various philosophical schools and directions, in accordance with their specificity and understanding of the subject of philosophy, formulate and use various philosophical methods. Pluralism of philosophical concepts implies the following division of philosophical methods:

Materialism and idealism, acting as the most general approaches and ways of considering being and cognition. The theory of knowledge from the very beginning is largely determined by what is taken as primary: matter or consciousness, spirit or nature, that is, materialistic or idealistic premises. In the first case, the general process of cognition is viewed as a reflection of objective reality in consciousness; in the second, as a self-knowledge of consciousness, an absolute idea, initially present in things (objective idealism), or as an analysis of our own sensations (subjective idealism). In other words, ontology largely determines epistemology;

Dialectics and Metaphysics. By dialectics they mean, first of all, the doctrine of the most general laws of the development of being and cognition; at the same time, it also acts as a general method of mastering reality. Dialectics is compatible with both materialism and idealism. In the first case, it appears as a materialist dialectic, in the second, as an idealistic dialectic. The classical representative of idealistic dialectics is GVF Hegel, who created the system of dialectics as a theory and method of cognition. And the classics of materialist dialectics are K. Marx and F. Engels, who gave it a holistic and scientific character. A feature of metaphysics is the tendency to create an unambiguous, static picture of the world, the striving for absolutization and isolated consideration of certain moments or fragments of life;

Sensualism (from Latin sensus - feeling) is a methodological principle in which feelings are taken as the basis of cognition and which seeks to derive all knowledge from the activity of the senses, sensations, absolutizing their role in cognition (Epicurus, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Holbach, Feuerbach and etc.);

Rationalism (from Latin ratio - reason) is a method according to which the basis of knowledge and action of people is reason (Spinoza, Leibniz, Descartes, Hegel, etc.);

Irrationalism is a philosophical method that denies or limits the role of reason in cognition, and focuses on irrational ways of comprehending being (Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Dilthey, Bergson, Heidegger, etc.) Lazarev F.V., Trifonova M.K. Philosophy. Tutorial. - Simferopol: SONAT, 1999 .-- S. 81-82.

In philosophy. Traditionally, being and being are distinguished.

Existence is a variety of types of realities.

Being is a “neutral” sign of the whole world (existence in general). Being is the last thing about which it is possible to raise a question, but it is not itself directly determined.

The whole relationship to the world is a relationship only as to existence, since this is the result of the practical activity of the subject! The problem of being is the problem of being!

The relationship “being - non-being” can be illustrated by the following thesis: There are facts that are exciting in themselves, but under certain circumstances this excitement is not possible. And is it possible to objectively describe these circumstances. (example, love, appearance)

Ancient thought about the problems of being:

1. The true essence of being expressed in the concept of the absolute. All the limiting characteristics of our time are contained in it: necessity, integrity, orderliness, perfection, harmony, truth and others.

2. Being comprehensible is only rational.

3. Abstraction of people. thinking.

Medieval philosophy about the problems of being:

1. The world was created by God. God is not a created being. God is unique and universal. God creates freely. His creation is positive. Man is the crown of His creation. Man possesses and controls everything that is created for him. God gives moral law.

2. Medieval philosophers understand man as a private being. Body - Soul - Spirit. The Spirit is communion with God through faith.

3. The idea of \u200b\u200bresurrection is replacing the Greek idea of \u200b\u200bthe immortality of the soul.

4. Human history is linear, from the creation of the world to the apocalypse.

Philosophy of modern times and German classical philosophy about the problems of being:

1. In this era, a classical (mechanical) model of being is formed, based on the ideas of the world of Newton and Descartes.

2. According to Descartes: the Universe is a huge, deterministic clockwork: God is the watchmaker, God is the divine ether, the beginning of being.

3. Kant outlines the horizons of human cognitive abilities. Knowledge has an a priori character.

Philosophy 20 on the problems of being:

1. The Absolute is declared a fiction (God is dead! Man is free! F. Nitsile) The only reality is language! (Language is the house of being! M. Heidegger).

2. Human being is defined. Through his (man's) needs, activities and is comprehended through the phenomena of consciousness.

3. Phil. Teachings of the cat. They study the phenomena of consciousness: phenomenology, tradition, hermenism.

1. Being of nature (being of things, processes, states) Characteristics: integrity, systemic character, principle.

2. The being of the social (the being of society as a whole and the being of an individual)

Current and trends in philosophical thought.

In ontology:

In terms of quantity, the origin of life.

Monism is one beginning - Vedanta, Thales, Democritus, Hegel, Marx, etc.

Pluralism - many of the first-born - Leibniz, Weishemica, etc.

Monism (from ancient Greek μόνος - one, only) is a philosophical doctrine, according to which seemingly different types of being or substances ultimately come down to a single principle, a general law of the structure of the universe. Unlike dualism and pluralism, which presuppose the existence of two and many substances, monism is characterized by a greater internal consistency and monolithicity.

There are three types of monism in philosophy:

Idealism, phenomenalism, mental monism asserts that the only reality is the ideal, material reality is generated by the activity of some ideal forms (human consciousness or God).

Neutral monism asserts that the mental and the material can be reduced to some third substance or energy.

Physicalism or materialism claims that the only reality is the material; the mental or the spiritual comes down to the material.

Monism (from the Greek. mónos - one, only) - a way of considering the diversity of world phenomena in the light of one principle, a single basis ("substance") of all that exists and building a theory in the form of a logically consistent development of the initial position. The opposite of M. is dualism, which recognizes two independent principles, and pluralism, proceeding from a plurality of principles. M. originally had the form of a naive idea of \u200b\u200b"primary substance" from which all things arose, for example, "water" (in Thales), "fire" (in Heraclitus). The main problem of philosophical mathematics is the understanding of the relationship between the material and the ideal, which presupposes a solution to the fundamental question of philosophy in the spirit of materialism or idealism. Materialistic M. deduces the ideal from the material and opposes both objective-idealistic and subjective-idealistic M. A variation of the latter is the so-called. "neutral M." (Machism, empirio-monism, etc.), which tries to derive both the physical and the mental from the "neutral" principle (for example, in E. Mach - from the "elements"). Idealistic M., when faced with the fundamentally unsolvable task of rationalizing the "creation" of the world by consciousness, spirit, contradicts the data of natural science and logic. Dualism, based on the idea of \u200b\u200bindependence of material and spiritual substances, cannot explain the coordination of physical and mental processes in human behavior (R. Descartes). In contrast to idealistic M. and dualism, materialistic M. considers the ideal as a property and function of matter. However, metaphysical materialism, trying to connect the ideal directly with nature, cannot explain both the emergence of the ideal from the material, and the transformation of the ideal into a material force, or bring the principle of materialistic M. to an understanding of social life. The highest and only consistent form of mathematics is dialectical materialism, which combined the principle of the material unity of the world with the principle of development and proved that all the variety of phenomena in nature, society, and human consciousness is a product of developing matter. The introduction of the category of practice into philosophy allowed us to consider the opposites of the material and the ideal as historically arising and transforming into each other, to unite in a single view the doctrine of being and cognition, to bring the building of materialism "to the top", to give it an effective character, to create a unified methodology of revolutionary thinking and revolutionary action. The integrity of the teaching of Marxism-Leninism is an example of the monistic development of theory. Dialectical-materialistic M. is not only a worldview, but also a logical-methodological principle that requires the theory to reveal the inner unity and connection of phenomena, consistently hold a certain point of view on facts, and systematically ascend from the abstract to the concrete, from the general law to its special manifestations.

Pluralism (from lat.pluralis - plural) - a philosophical position, according to which there are many different equal, independent and irreducible forms of knowledge and cognitive methodologies (epistemological pluralism) or forms of being (ontological pluralism). Pluralism takes an opposing position to monism.

The term "pluralism" was introduced at the beginning of the 18th century. Christian Wolff, a follower of Leibniz to describe the teachings opposed to the theory of Leibniz's monads, primarily the various varieties of dualism.

Pluralism in philosophical systems

An example of pluralism is the theory of ancient thinkers, who put forward such diverse principles as earth, water, air, fire, etc. (the four elements of Empedocles) as the basis of everything.

At the end of the 19th-20th centuries, pluralism spread and developed both in androcentric philosophical concepts that absolutize the uniqueness of personal experience (personalism, existentialism), and in epistemology (the pragmatism of William James, the philosophy of science of Karl Popper and, especially, the theoretical pluralism of his follower Paul Feyerabend ).

Epistemological pluralism as a methodological approach in science, emphasizing the subjectivity of knowledge and the primacy of will in the process of cognition (James), the historical (Popper) and social (Feyerabend) conditioning of knowledge, criticizes the classical scientific methodology and is one of the premises of a number of anti-scientist movements.

Pluralism

(from Lat. pluralis - plural) - a concept according to which there are several or many independent substantive principles or types of being. P. opposes monism. By its essence, P. is idealistic. direction, it historically arose either as a transformation of dualism, or as an attempt at eclectic. resolution of contradictions idealistic. monism.

Classic. an example of P. was Leibniz's monadology, for which the world consists of an innumerable set of spiritual substances. In subsequent systems of idealism, P. in a number of cases took the form of the thesis that the world consists of separate beings (individuals). P. became widespread since the middle. 19th century starting with Proudhon, Renouvier and Boutroux and ending with Royce, Russell and Wittgenstein. P.'s concept penetrated into the majority of idealistic. Philos. constructions. P. is characteristic of philosophy. teachings of Herbart, Lotze, Yakovenko, and others. The most typical type of P. in the 20th century. is the philosophy of personalism (Bone, Brightman, etc.). K ontological. P. gravitates neorealism N. Hartmann and Alexander with their teachings about the qualitative heterogeneity of "layers", or "levels", being, as well as critical. realism of Santayana with his concept of four "kingdoms" of being. Supporters of P. are trying to portray their teaching as supposedly rising above the opposite of materialism and idealism.

In the present. bourgeois. philosophy often use the term "P." in a broad sense. In agnostic. and relativistic theories of cognition arose its own epistemological variety of P. - in the form of a statement about the absence of objective truth. Gnoseological. P., denying objective truth, is characteristic of pragmatism, philosophy of life, existentialism and neopositivism. Behind the alleged apology of human activity in theories of this kind is a pessimistic one. disbelief in cognition. the possibilities of humanity. To conclusions in the spirit of P. came conventionalism, falsely interpreted the possibility of many isomorphic interpretations for theoretical. constructions. The term "P." spread to the bourgeois. sociological. lit-re, where it is used to refer to various concepts of multiplicity of factors. Eclectic. methodological. the basis of these concepts was criticized from the standpoint of historical. materialism Marx, Engels, Lenin. Marx, in particular, criticized P. representatives of vulgar political economy. Bourges. theorists develop concepts of various "possible ways" of human development, also characterizing them as sociological. P. In some cases P. became an expression of the deepening disintegration of the bourgeois. consciousness and loss of perspectives is historical. development. "... The only thing that things have in common is that they have no relationship" (H. H. Screeu, Weltbild und Glaube im 20. Jahrhundert, Gött., 1956, S. 6).

The assertions that P. is organically inherent in early or, conversely, more developed materialism are untenable. This t. Sp. misinterprets the historian. the role of naive materialistic. concepts of Wang Chun, Charvaks, Empedocles, Zhou Yan and others, who taught about two, four, five and more material principles of being, and also brings under the heading P. all the historical. types of materialistic. atomists, hushing up the thesis of the materialists about the unity of the world and one-sidedly interpreting their provisions on the discreteness of matter, the variety of ways and forms of its existence. Since pre-Marxist materialism did not reveal the dialectics of matter and consciousness, its representatives were not always able to carry out monistic ideas consistently enough. t. sp. If they did it, it was simplistic, sometimes primitive, vulgar. However, this did not turn them into pluralists. In these statements, the fact of recognition of the dialectical is also sophistically interpreted. materialism of the specificity of consciousness and social phenomena, which does not mean at all that these are in themselves a "kind" of matter.

Modern P. sophistically interprets the more and more revealed human. knowledge dnalektich. the inexhaustibility of the variety of properties and phenomena of reality, depicting it as an interweaving, and sometimes as a chaos of heterogeneous events, facts, states of consciousness, etc. In essence, it is a metaphysical. concept, hostile dialectic. and historical. materialism.

Philosophy: Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M .: Gardariki. Edited by A.A. Ivina. 2004 .

PLURALISM

(from lat. pluralis - plural), filo. position according to which there are several or independent and irreducible beginnings or types of being (P. in ontology), bases and forms of knowledge (P. in epistemology)... The term "P." was offered german philosopher H. Wolf in 1712. P. is the opposite of monism.

Understanding reality before the emergence of exact natural science was associated with the advancement of heterogeneous principles ("Four elements" - earth, water, air and fire, and t. P.)... Science and philosophy of modern times, seeking to identify int. communication of phenomena, demolish qualities. the variety of phenomena to common grounds, in principle, P.

Development is idealistic. philosophy in end 19-20 cc. characterized by an increase in tendencies towards P. At the same time gnoseologich. basis nluralisticich. concepts favored. P. finds its own primarily in personalism, emanating from the idea of \u200b\u200bthe uniqueness of each person, in the philosophy of life, pragmatism (W. James), existentialism, "critical." ontology of N. Hartmann.

P.'s transformation into a conscious position is characteristic of such directions bourgeois. philosophy of science like, ex., A. Poincaré's conventionalism, “critical. rationalism ", proposed by K. Pogscher and his students and called them "theoretical. P.". P. in epistemology and methodology of science, defending the plurality of truths, absolutizes one of the features of science 20 in. - concepts competing with each other, multivariate development modern theoretical knowledge.

IN modern bourgeois. sociology P. as a methodology, orientation is presented in a number of concepts: in t. n. theory of factors, theory of political. P., interpreting the politician. power as opposition and balance of societies. groups. A number of ideologues of right and "left" revisionism argue that P. is admissible within Marxism, expressed in its various interpretations (scientistic, anthropological, etc.), in the existence of many "models" of socialism. Political. P. is also manifested in the absolutization and universalization of socio-political. structures bourgeois. "Pluralistic." democracy as opposed to real socialism.

Asserting the principled nauya. knowledge of diversity scientific. approaches and, methods of discussion and solution of specific problems of knowledge and societies. life, Marxism-Leninism resolutely rejects philos. and polity. P.

James W., A Universe with a Pluralistic. point of view, Jer. from english, M., 1911; Tsekhmistro I.Z., Dialectics of the multiple and the single, M., 1972; Fedoseev P.N., Philosophy and worldview. Problems modern science, "VF", 1978, no. 12; 1979, No. 1; Jakowenko B., Vom Wesen des Pluralismus, Bonn, 1928; Der Methoden und Theorienpluralismus in den Wissenschaften, Meisenheim am Glan, 1971.

Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. Ch. edition: L.F.Ilyichev, P.N.Fedoseev, S.M.Kovalev, V.G. Panov. 1983 .

PLURALISM

(from lat.pluralis plural)

philosophical (metaphysical), according to which it consists of many independent entities that do not form an absolute unity. Pluralism is atomism (understood in an absolute sense) and. The very expression "pluralism" is derived from Chr. Wolf. Modern philosophy, which rejects everyone, is pluralistic at its core. She recognizes many independent, often separate existences (see. Personalism), deterministic entities and "layers of being". In a particularly striking form, pluralism is presented by William James, in the philosophy of life and neo-Thomism.

Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. 2010 .

PLURALISM

(from Lat. pluralis - plural) - a concept according to which there are several or many independent substantive principles or types of being. P. opposes monism. By its essence, P. is idealistic. direction, it historically arose either as a transformation of dualism, or as an attempt at eclectic. resolution of contradictions idealistic. monism.

Classic. an example of P. was Leibniz, for which it consists of countless spiritual substances. In subsequent systems of idealism, P. in a number of cases took the form of the thesis that the world consists of separate beings (individuals). P. became widespread since the middle. 19th century starting with Proudhon, Renouvier and Boutroux and ending with Royce, Russell and Wittgenstein. P.'s concept penetrated into the majority of idealistic. Philos. constructions. P. is characteristic of philosophy. teachings of Herbart, Lotze, Yakovenko, and others. The most typical type of P. in the 20th century. is the philosophy of personalism (Bone, Brightman, etc.). K ontological. P. gravitates towards N. Hartmann and Alexander with their teachings about the qualitative heterogeneity of "layers", or "levels", being, as well as critical. Santayana with his concept of four "kingdoms" of being. Supporters of P. are trying to portray their teaching as supposedly rising above the opposite of materialism and idealism.

In the present. bourgeois. philosophy often use "P." in a broad sense. In agnostic. and relativistic theories of cognition arose its own epistemological variety of P. - in the form of a statement about the absence of objective truth. Gnoseological. P., denying objective truth, is characteristic of pragmatism, philosophy of life, existentialism and neopositivism. Behind the alleged apology of human activity in theories of this kind is a pessimistic one. disbelief in cognition. the possibilities of humanity. To conclusions in the spirit of P. came conventionalism, misinterpreting many isomorphic interpretations for theoretical. constructions. The term "P." spread to the bourgeois. sociological. lit-re, where it is used to refer to various concepts of multiplicity of factors. Eclectic. methodological. the basis of these concepts was criticized from the standpoint of historical. materialism Marx, Engels, Lenin. Marx, in particular, criticized P. representatives of vulgar political economy. Bourges. theorists develop concepts of various "possible ways" of human development, also characterizing them as sociological. P. In some cases P. became an expression of the deepening disintegration of the bourgeois. consciousness and loss of perspectives is historical. development. "... The only thing that things have in common is that they have no relationship" (H. H. Screeu, Weltbild und Glaube im 20. Jahrhundert, Gött., 1956, S. 6).

The assertions that P. is organically inherent in early or, conversely, more developed materialism are untenable. This t. Sp. misinterprets the historian. the role of naive materialistic. concepts of Wang Chun, Charvaks, Empedocles, Zhou Yan and others, who taught about two, four, five and more material principles of being, and also brings under the heading P. all the historical. types of materialistic. atomists, hushing up the materialists about the unity of the world and one-sidedly interpreting their provisions on the discreteness of matter, the variety of ways and forms of its existence. Since pre-Marxist materialism did not reveal matter and consciousness, its representatives could not always consistently carry out monistic. t. sp. If they did it, it was simplistic, sometimes primitive, vulgar. However, this did not turn them into pluralists. In these statements, the confessions of the dialectical are also sophistically interpreted. materialism of the specificity of consciousness and social phenomena, which does not mean at all that these are in themselves a "kind" of matter.

Modern P. sophistically interprets the more and more revealed human. knowledge dnalektich. the inexhaustibility of the diversity of properties and phenomena of reality, depicting it as an interweaving, and sometimes as heterogeneous events, facts, states of consciousness, etc. In essence, it is a metaphysical. concept, hostile dialectic. and historical. materialism.

Lit .: James W., Universe from a pluralistic point of view, M., 1911; Delogrammatic M. H., Methodology P. and sovr. bourgeois. social theory, "FN" (NDVSh), 1963, No 2; Laner P., Pluralismus oder Monismus, B., 1905; Marcus H., Die Philosophie des Monopluralismus, B., 1907; Wahl J., Les philosophies pluralistes d "Angleterre et d" Amérique, P., 1920 (Thèse); Jakowenko B., Vom Wesen des Pluralismus, Bonn, 1928.

I. Narsky. Moscow.

Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .

PLURALISM

PLURALISM (from lat. Pluralis - plural) is a philosophical trend that asserts that the world consists of many fundamentally different, independent and irreducible substances, origins, primordial essences. Pluralism is the opposite of monism. The term “pluralism” was introduced by H. Wolff in 1712.

A variety of pluralism is one that reduces independent primary essences to two. In the history of philosophy, consistent pluralism is no more common than consistent monism. Empedocles is considered a classical pluralist who recognizes more than two independent origins. He taught that the world is formed by four elements - earth, water, air and fire, which are eternal, unchanging and, therefore, do not affect each other and do not pass into each other. Everything in the world is explained by their mechanical mixing.

From an epistemological point of view, pluralism is a private eclecticism. Pluralism is the same disadvantage of the theory as the paradoxes that arise in it. They begin to confess it only when, despite all efforts, it is not possible to consistently carry out a monistic interpretation of the phenomena under study.

Methodological pluralism is distinguished from ideological pluralism - the desire to explain the researched by the interaction of many independent and unrelated principles. This is, for example, a multifactorial approach to the study of human society. It is opposed by a one-factor approach, which explains societies by some one phenomenon - geographic environment, economy, etc.

Pluralism is also called a socio-political doctrine that insists on the need for the normal development of society, a variety of political, religious, economic and other views.

G.D. Levin

New Encyclopedia of Philosophy: In 4 vols. M .: Thought. Edited by V.S.Stepin. 2001 .

See what "PLURALISM" is in other dictionaries:

- (pluralism) In the literal sense of the word (lat. pluralis - plural), the belief in the existence of more than one kind of being or the tendency to be, possess or do more than one thing. It is in this sense that this term is used in ... ... Political science. Vocabulary.

- (from Lat. pluralis plural) the position according to which there are several or many independent and irreducible beginnings or types of being, bases and forms of knowledge, styles of behavior, etc. The term pluralism can refer to: ... ... Wikipedia

pluralism - a, m. pluralisme m. lat. pluralis is multiple. 1. The spirit of the public. Michelson 1866. We talked about synecurism, pluralism, undeserved pensions, in general about wasteful spending of public money. OZ 1879 11 1 197. 2. Anti-scientific ... ... Historical Dictionary of Russian Gallicisms

- (new lat., from pluralis plural). 1) a philosophical trend that allows not a single beginning, but a multitude of independent material entities (atomism) or spiritual (Leibniz's "monads", Herbart's "reality", etc.). 2) providing ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

pluralism - (socio-psychological aspect) (from Lat. pluralis plurality) manifestation in activity and communication of a wide range of opinions, orientations, multivariate assessments expressed by individuals regarding situations that are significant for them. In P. ... ... Big psychological encyclopedia

- (from the Latin pluralis plural), 1) a philosophical doctrine, according to which there are several (or many) independent principles of being or foundations of knowledge. The term pluralism was introduced by H. Wolff (1712). A kind of pluralism dualism ... ... Modern encyclopedia

- (from Lat. pluralis plural) 1) a philosophical doctrine, according to which there are several (or many) independent principles of being or the foundations of knowledge. The term pluralism was introduced by H. Wolf (1712). 2) Characteristics of democratic political ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary